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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      21
      22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      23
      24
      25class _Generator(type):
      26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      28
      29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      32
      33        return klass
      34
      35
      36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      37    """
      38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      39
      40    Args:
      41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      42            Default: False.
      43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      45            True or 'always': Always quote.
      46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      48            Default: False.
      49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      51            Default: 2.
      52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      54            Default: 2.
      55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      58            False: Disables function name normalization.
      59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      63            Default: 3
      64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      66            Default: False
      67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      69            line length.
      70            Default: 80
      71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      72            Default: True
      73    """
      74
      75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
      97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
      98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
      99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     106        ),
     107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     109        ),
     110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     150    }
     151
     152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     155
     156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     159
     160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     162
     163    # Always do union distinct or union all
     164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     165
     166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     168
     169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     171
     172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     174
     175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     177
     178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     180
     181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     183
     184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     186
     187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     189
     190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     192
     193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     195
     196    # Whether join hints should be generated
     197    JOIN_HINTS = True
     198
     199    # Whether table hints should be generated
     200    TABLE_HINTS = True
     201
     202    # Whether query hints should be generated
     203    QUERY_HINTS = True
     204
     205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     207
     208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     210
     211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     213
     214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     216
     217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     218    RETURNING_END = True
     219
     220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     222
     223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     225
     226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     228
     229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     231
     232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     234
     235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     239
     240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     242
     243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     245
     246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     248
     249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     251
     252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     254
     255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     257
     258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     260
     261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     263
     264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     266
     267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     269
     270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     272
     273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     275
     276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     278
     279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     281
     282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     284
     285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     287
     288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     290
     291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     293
     294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     296
     297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     299
     300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     302
     303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     305
     306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     308
     309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     311
     312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     314
     315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     318
     319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     321
     322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     324
     325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     327
     328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     330
     331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     333
     334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     336
     337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     341
     342    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     343        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     344        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     348        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     349        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     350        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     351        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     352    }
     353
     354    STAR_MAPPING = {
     355        "except": "EXCEPT",
     356        "replace": "REPLACE",
     357    }
     358
     359    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     360        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     361        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     362        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     363        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     364        "DAYS": "DAY",
     365        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     366        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     367        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     368        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     369    }
     370
     371    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     372        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     373        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     374        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     375        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     376        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     377            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     378            if e.args.get("windows")
     379            else ""
     380        ),
     381    }
     382
     383    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     384
     385    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     386
     387    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     388    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     389
     390    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     391        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     392        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     393        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     394        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     395        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     396        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     397        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     398        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     399        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     400        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     403        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     404        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     405        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     406        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     411        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     412        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     413        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     414        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     415        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     416        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     417        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     418        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     419        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     420        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     421        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     422        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     423        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     426        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     427        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     428        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     429        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     430        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     431        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     432        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     433        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     434        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     435        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     436        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     437        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     438        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     439        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     440        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     443        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     444        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     445        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     446        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     447        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     448        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     449        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     450        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     451        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     452        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     453        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     454        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     455        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     456        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     457        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     458        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     459        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     460        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     461        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     462        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     463        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     464        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     465        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     466        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     467    }
     468
     469    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     470    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     471
     472    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     473    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     474        exp.Create,
     475        exp.Delete,
     476        exp.Drop,
     477        exp.From,
     478        exp.Insert,
     479        exp.Join,
     480        exp.Select,
     481        exp.Union,
     482        exp.Update,
     483        exp.Where,
     484        exp.With,
     485    )
     486
     487    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     488    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     489        exp.Binary,
     490        exp.Union,
     491    )
     492
     493    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     494    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     495        exp.Column,
     496        exp.Literal,
     497        exp.Neg,
     498        exp.Paren,
     499    )
     500
     501    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     502        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     503        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     504        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     505        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     506    }
     507
     508    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     509    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     510
     511    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     512
     513    __slots__ = (
     514        "pretty",
     515        "identify",
     516        "normalize",
     517        "pad",
     518        "_indent",
     519        "normalize_functions",
     520        "unsupported_level",
     521        "max_unsupported",
     522        "leading_comma",
     523        "max_text_width",
     524        "comments",
     525        "dialect",
     526        "unsupported_messages",
     527        "_escaped_quote_end",
     528        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     529    )
     530
     531    def __init__(
     532        self,
     533        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     534        identify: str | bool = False,
     535        normalize: bool = False,
     536        pad: int = 2,
     537        indent: int = 2,
     538        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     539        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     540        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     541        leading_comma: bool = False,
     542        max_text_width: int = 80,
     543        comments: bool = True,
     544        dialect: DialectType = None,
     545    ):
     546        import sqlglot
     547        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     548
     549        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     550        self.identify = identify
     551        self.normalize = normalize
     552        self.pad = pad
     553        self._indent = indent
     554        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     555        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     556        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     557        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     558        self.comments = comments
     559        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     560
     561        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     562        self.normalize_functions = (
     563            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     564        )
     565
     566        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     567        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     568            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     569        )
     570        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     571            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     572        )
     573
     574    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     575        """
     576        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     577
     578        Args:
     579            expression: The syntax tree.
     580            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     581                it is safer to copy.
     582
     583        Returns:
     584            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     585        """
     586        if copy:
     587            expression = expression.copy()
     588
     589        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     590
     591        self.unsupported_messages = []
     592        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     593
     594        if self.pretty:
     595            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     596
     597        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     598            return sql
     599
     600        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     601            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     602                logger.warning(msg)
     603        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     604            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     605
     606        return sql
     607
     608    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     609        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     610        if (
     611            not expression.parent
     612            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     613            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     614        ):
     615            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     616
     617            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     618
     619        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     620            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     621
     622            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     623
     624        return expression
     625
     626    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     627        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     628            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     629        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     630
     631    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     632        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     633
     634    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     635        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     636
     637    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     638        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     639        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     640        return comment
     641
     642    def maybe_comment(
     643        self,
     644        sql: str,
     645        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     646        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     647        separated: bool = False,
     648    ) -> str:
     649        comments = (
     650            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     651            if self.comments
     652            else None
     653        )
     654
     655        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     656            return sql
     657
     658        comments_sql = " ".join(
     659            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     660        )
     661
     662        if not comments_sql:
     663            return sql
     664
     665        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     666
     667        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     668            return (
     669                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     670                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     671                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     672            )
     673
     674        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     675
     676    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     677        this_sql = self.indent(
     678            (
     679                self.sql(expression)
     680                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     681                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     682            ),
     683            level=1,
     684            pad=0,
     685        )
     686        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     687
     688    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     689        original = self.identify
     690        self.identify = False
     691        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     692        self.identify = original
     693        return result
     694
     695    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     696        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     697            return name.upper()
     698        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     699            return name.lower()
     700        return name
     701
     702    def indent(
     703        self,
     704        sql: str,
     705        level: int = 0,
     706        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     707        skip_first: bool = False,
     708        skip_last: bool = False,
     709    ) -> str:
     710        if not self.pretty:
     711            return sql
     712
     713        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     714        lines = sql.split("\n")
     715
     716        return "\n".join(
     717            (
     718                line
     719                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     720                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     721            )
     722            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     723        )
     724
     725    def sql(
     726        self,
     727        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     728        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     729        comment: bool = True,
     730    ) -> str:
     731        if not expression:
     732            return ""
     733
     734        if isinstance(expression, str):
     735            return expression
     736
     737        if key:
     738            value = expression.args.get(key)
     739            if value:
     740                return self.sql(value)
     741            return ""
     742
     743        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     744
     745        if callable(transform):
     746            sql = transform(self, expression)
     747        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     748            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     749
     750            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     751                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     752            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     753                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     755                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     756            else:
     757                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     758        else:
     759            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     760
     761        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     762
     763    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     764        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     765        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     766        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     767
     768    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     769        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     770        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     771        options = expression.args.get("options")
     772        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     773        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     774        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     775        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     776        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     777
     778    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     779        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     780            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     781        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     782        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     783
     784    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     785        return ".".join(
     786            self.sql(part)
     787            for part in (
     788                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     789                expression.args.get("db"),
     790                expression.args.get("table"),
     791                expression.args.get("this"),
     792            )
     793            if part
     794        )
     795
     796    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     797        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     798
     799        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     800            join_mark = ""
     801            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     802
     803        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     804
     805    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     807        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     808        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     809        return f"{position}{this}"
     810
     811    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     812        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     814        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     815        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     816        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     817        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     818        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     819        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     820
     821        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     822            kind = ""
     823
     824        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     825
     826    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     828        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     829        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     830
     831    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     833        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     834            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     835        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     836            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     837        else:
     838            persisted = ""
     839        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     840
     841    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     842        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     843
     844    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     845        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     846            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     847        else:
     848            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     849
     850        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     851
     852    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     853        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     854    ) -> str:
     855        this = ""
     856        if expression.this is not None:
     857            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     858            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     859
     860        start = expression.args.get("start")
     861        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     862        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     863        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     864        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     865        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     866        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     867        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     868        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     869        cycle_sql = ""
     870
     871        if cycle is not None:
     872            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     873            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     874
     875        sequence_opts = ""
     876        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     877            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     878            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     879
     880        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     881        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     882
     883        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     884
     885    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     886        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     887    ) -> str:
     888        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     889        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     890        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     891
     892    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     893        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     894    ) -> str:
     895        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     896
     897    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     898        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     899
     900    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     901        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     902
     903    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     904        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     905        if desc is not None:
     906            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     907        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     908
     909    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     911        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     912        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     913        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     914        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     915        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     916        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     917
     918    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     919        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     920
     921    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     923        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     924        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     925
     926        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     927
     928        properties_sql = ""
     929        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     930            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     931        ):
     932            properties_sql = self.sql(
     933                exp.Properties(
     934                    expressions=[
     935                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     937                    ]
     938                )
     939            )
     940
     941        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     942        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     943
     944        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     945        if expression_sql:
     946            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     947
     948            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     949                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     950                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     951                        exp.Properties(
     952                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     953                        ),
     954                        wrapped=False,
     955                    )
     956                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     957                else:
     958                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     959
     960        postindex_props_sql = ""
     961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     962            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     963                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     964                wrapped=False,
     965                prefix=" ",
     966            )
     967
     968        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     969        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     970        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     971
     972        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     973        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     974
     975        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     976        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     977            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     978                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     979                sep=" ",
     980                prefix=" ",
     981                wrapped=False,
     982            )
     983
     984        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     985
     986        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     988            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     989                exp.Properties(
     990                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     991                ),
     992                sep=" ",
     993                prefix=" ",
     994                wrapped=False,
     995            )
     996
     997        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     998        no_schema_binding = (
     999            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1000        )
    1001
    1002        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1003        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1004
    1005        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1007
    1008    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1009        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1010        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1011        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1012        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1013        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1014        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1015        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1016        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1017        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1018        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1019
    1020        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1021        if cache is None:
    1022            cache_str = ""
    1023        elif cache is True:
    1024            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1025        else:
    1026            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1027
    1028        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1029        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1030
    1031        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1032
    1033    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1035        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1036        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1037        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1038
    1039    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1040        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1041        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1042        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1043
    1044    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1045        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1046        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1047
    1048    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1049        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1050        if with_:
    1051            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1052        return sql
    1053
    1054    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1055        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1056        recursive = (
    1057            "RECURSIVE "
    1058            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1059            else ""
    1060        )
    1061
    1062        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1063
    1064    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1065        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1066
    1067        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1068        if materialized is False:
    1069            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1070        elif materialized:
    1071            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1072
    1073        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1074
    1075    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1076        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1077        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1078        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1079
    1080        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1081            columns = ""
    1082            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1083
    1084        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1085            alias = "_t"
    1086
    1087        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1088
    1089    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1091        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1092            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1093        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1094
    1095    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1097        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1098            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1099        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1100
    1101    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1103        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1104            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1105        return this
    1106
    1107    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1109        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1110
    1111        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1112            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1113            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1114
    1115        if escape:
    1116            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1117        else:
    1118            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1119
    1120        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1121        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1122
    1123    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1124        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1125        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1126
    1127    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1129        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1130        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1131        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1132
    1133    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1134        type_value = expression.this
    1135
    1136        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1137            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1138        else:
    1139            type_sql = (
    1140                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1141                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1142                else type_value
    1143            )
    1144
    1145        nested = ""
    1146        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1147        values = ""
    1148
    1149        if interior:
    1150            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1151                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1152                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1153                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1154                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1155                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1156            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1157                nested = f" {interior}"
    1158            else:
    1159                nested = f"({interior})"
    1160
    1161        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1162        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1163            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1165        ):
    1166            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1167
    1168        return type_sql
    1169
    1170    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1171        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1172        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1173        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1174        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1175
    1176    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1178        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1179        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1180        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1181        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1182        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1183        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1184        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1185        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1186        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1187            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1188        else:
    1189            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1190        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1191
    1192    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1194        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1195        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1196        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1197        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1198        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1199        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1200        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1201        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1202        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1203        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1204
    1205    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1206        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1207
    1208    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1209        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1210
    1211    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1212        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1213        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1214        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1215        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1216        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1217            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1218        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1219        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1220
    1221    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1222        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1223            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1224            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1225            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1226
    1227        agg = expression.this
    1228        agg_arg = agg.this
    1229        cond = expression.expression.this
    1230        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1231        return self.sql(agg)
    1232
    1233    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1234        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1235            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1236            return ""
    1237
    1238        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1239
    1240    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1241        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1242        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1243        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1244        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1245        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1246        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1247        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1248        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1249        if include:
    1250            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1251        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1252        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1253        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1254        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1255
    1256        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1257
    1258    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1259        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1260        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1261        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1262        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1263        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1264        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1265        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1266
    1267        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1268
    1269        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1270        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1271
    1272    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1273        text = expression.name
    1274        lower = text.lower()
    1275        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1276        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1277        if (
    1278            expression.quoted
    1279            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1280            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1281            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1282        ):
    1283            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1284        return text
    1285
    1286    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1287        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1288        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1289        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1290        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1291        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1292
    1293    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1294        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1295        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1296
    1297    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1298        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1299
    1300    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1301        root_properties = []
    1302        with_properties = []
    1303
    1304        for p in expression.expressions:
    1305            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1306            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1307                with_properties.append(p)
    1308            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1309                root_properties.append(p)
    1310
    1311        return self.root_properties(
    1312            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1313        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1314
    1315    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1316        if properties.expressions:
    1317            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1318        return ""
    1319
    1320    def properties(
    1321        self,
    1322        properties: exp.Properties,
    1323        prefix: str = "",
    1324        sep: str = ", ",
    1325        suffix: str = "",
    1326        wrapped: bool = True,
    1327    ) -> str:
    1328        if properties.expressions:
    1329            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1330            if expressions:
    1331                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1332                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1333        return ""
    1334
    1335    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1336        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1337
    1338    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1339        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1340        for p in properties.expressions:
    1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1342            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1343                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1344            else:
    1345                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1346
    1347        return properties_locs
    1348
    1349    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1350        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1351            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1352        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1353
    1354    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1355        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1356        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1357            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1358
    1359        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1360        if not property_name:
    1361            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1362
    1363        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1364
    1365    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1366        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1367            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1368            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1369
    1370            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1371            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1372                like = f"({like})"
    1373
    1374            return like
    1375
    1376        if expression.expressions:
    1377            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1378
    1379        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1380        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1381
    1382    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1383        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1384        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1385        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1386
    1387    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1388        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1389        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1390        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1391        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1392        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1393        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1394        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1395
    1396    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1397        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1398        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1399        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1400
    1401    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1402        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1403            property = "DEFAULT"
    1404        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1405            property = "ON"
    1406        else:
    1407            property = "OFF"
    1408        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1409
    1410    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1411        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1412            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1413        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1414            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1415
    1416        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1417        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1418
    1419    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1420        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1421        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1422        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1423        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1424            if default:
    1425                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1426            elif minimum:
    1427                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1428            else:
    1429                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1430            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1431        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1432        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1433        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1434
    1435    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1436        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1437        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1438        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1439        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1440        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1441
    1442        if autotemp is not None:
    1443            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1444        elif always:
    1445            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1446        elif default:
    1447            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1448        elif manual:
    1449            prop = "MANUAL"
    1450        elif never:
    1451            prop = "NEVER"
    1452        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1453
    1454    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1455        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1456        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1457        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1458        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1459        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1460        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1461        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1462
    1463    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1464        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1465            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1466        if expression.this:
    1467            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1468            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1469            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1470
    1471        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1472        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1473        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1474
    1475    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1477
    1478        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1479        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1480            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1481        else:
    1482            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1483
    1484        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1485
    1486    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1487        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1488        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1489        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1490        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1491        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1492        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1493        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1494
    1495    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1496        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1497        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1498        statistics_sql = ""
    1499        if statistics is not None:
    1500            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1501        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1502
    1503    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1504        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1505
    1506        if expression.this:
    1507            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1508            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1509
    1510            if expression.expression:
    1511                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1512                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1513
    1514            sql = f"{sql})"
    1515
    1516        return f"{sql})"
    1517
    1518    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1519        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1520        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1521
    1522        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1523            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1524        else:
    1525            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1526
    1527        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1528        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1529        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1530        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1531        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1532        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1533        if is_function:
    1534            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1535        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1536
    1537        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1538        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1539        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1540        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1541        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1542        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1543        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1544        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1545
    1546        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1547            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1548        else:
    1549            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1550
    1551        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1552        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1553
    1554    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1555        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1556
    1557    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1558        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1559
    1560    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1561        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1562
    1563    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1565        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1568        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1569
    1570    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1571        return expression.name
    1572
    1573    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1574        return expression.name
    1575
    1576    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1577        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1578
    1579        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1580        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1581
    1582        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1583        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1584        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1585
    1586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1587        if expressions:
    1588            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1589            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1590
    1591        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1592
    1593    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1594        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1595
    1596    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1597        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1598        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1599        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1600        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1601        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1602        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1603        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1604        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1605        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1606        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1607        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1608        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1609        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1610
    1611    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1612        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1613
    1614    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1615        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1616        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1617        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1618        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1619
    1620    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1623        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1624        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1625
    1626    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1627        return ".".join(
    1628            self.sql(part)
    1629            for part in (
    1630                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1631                expression.args.get("db"),
    1632                expression.args.get("this"),
    1633            )
    1634            if part is not None
    1635        )
    1636
    1637    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1638        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1639        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1640        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1641        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1642        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1643        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1644        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1645        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1646        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1647        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1648        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1649        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1650        joins = self.indent(
    1651            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1652        )
    1653        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1654
    1655        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1656        if file_format:
    1657            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1658            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1659            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1660
    1661        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1662        if ordinality:
    1663            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1664            alias = ""
    1665
    1666        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1667        if when:
    1668            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1669
    1670        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1671
    1672    def tablesample_sql(
    1673        self,
    1674        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1675        sep: str = " AS ",
    1676        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1677    ) -> str:
    1678        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1679            table = expression.this.copy()
    1680            table.set("alias", None)
    1681            this = self.sql(table)
    1682            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1683        else:
    1684            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1685            alias = ""
    1686
    1687        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1688        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1689        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1690        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1691        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1692        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1693        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1694        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1695        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1696
    1697        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1698        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1699            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1700
    1701        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1702        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1703            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1704
    1705        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1706        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1707            expr = f"({expr})"
    1708
    1709        return (
    1710            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1711        )
    1712
    1713    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1714        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1715
    1716        if expression.this:
    1717            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1718            if not expressions:
    1719                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1720
    1721            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1722            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1723            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1724            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1725            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1726
    1727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1728        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1729        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1730        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1731        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1732        if include_nulls is not None:
    1733            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1734        else:
    1735            nulls = ""
    1736        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1737
    1738    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1739        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1740        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1741        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1742        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1743
    1744    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1745        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1746
    1747    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1749        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1750        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1751        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1752        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1753        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1754        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1755        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1756            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1757        else:
    1758            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1759        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1760        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1761
    1762    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1763        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1764
    1765        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1766        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1767            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1768            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1769            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1770            values = (
    1771                f"({values})"
    1772                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1773                else values
    1774            )
    1775            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1776
    1777        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1778        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1779        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1780
    1781        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1782
    1783        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1784            row = tup.expressions
    1785
    1786            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1787                row = [
    1788                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1789                ]
    1790
    1791            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1792
    1793        if self.pretty:
    1794            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1795            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1796            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1797            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1798            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1799
    1800        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1801        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1802        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1803
    1804    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1805        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1806
    1807    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1808        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1809        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1810        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1811
    1812    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1813        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1814
    1815    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1816        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1817        if group_by_all is True:
    1818            modifier = " ALL"
    1819        elif group_by_all is False:
    1820            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1821        else:
    1822            modifier = ""
    1823
    1824        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1825
    1826        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1827        grouping_sets = (
    1828            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1829        )
    1830
    1831        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1832        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1833            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1834        else:
    1835            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1836            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1837
    1838        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1839        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1840            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1841        else:
    1842            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1843            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1844
    1845        groupings = csv(
    1846            grouping_sets,
    1847            cube_sql,
    1848            rollup_sql,
    1849            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1850            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1851        )
    1852
    1853        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1854            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1855
    1856        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1857
    1858    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1859        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1860        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1861
    1862    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1863        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1864        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1865        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1866        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1867        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1868        return start + connect
    1869
    1870    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1871        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1872
    1873    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1874        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1875            side = None
    1876        else:
    1877            side = expression.side
    1878
    1879        op_sql = " ".join(
    1880            op
    1881            for op in (
    1882                expression.method,
    1883                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1884                side,
    1885                expression.kind,
    1886                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1887            )
    1888            if op
    1889        )
    1890        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1891        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1892        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1893        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1894
    1895        if not on_sql and using:
    1896            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1897
    1898        this = expression.this
    1899        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1900
    1901        if on_sql:
    1902            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1903            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1904            if using:
    1905                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1906            else:
    1907                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1908        elif not op_sql:
    1909            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1910                return f" {this_sql}"
    1911
    1912            return f", {this_sql}"
    1913
    1914        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1915        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1916
    1917    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1918        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1919        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1920        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1921
    1922    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1923        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1924
    1925        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1926        if cross_apply is True:
    1927            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1928        elif cross_apply is False:
    1929            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1930        else:
    1931            op = ""
    1932
    1933        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1934
    1935    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1937
    1938        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1939            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1940            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1941            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1942            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1943            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1944            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1945
    1946        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1947        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1948        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1949
    1950    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1952
    1953        args = [
    1954            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1955            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1956            if e
    1957        ]
    1958
    1959        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1960        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1962        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1963
    1964        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1965
    1966    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1968        value = expression.expression
    1969        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1970        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1971        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1972        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1973
    1974    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1975        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1976        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1978        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1979        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1980        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1981        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1982        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1983
    1984    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1985        expressions = (
    1986            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1987        )
    1988        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1989        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1990
    1991    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1992        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1993
    1994    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1995        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1996            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1997            return ""
    1998
    1999        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2001        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2002        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2003
    2004        if wait is not None:
    2005            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2006                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2007            else:
    2008                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2009
    2010        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2011
    2012    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2013        text = expression.this or ""
    2014        if expression.is_string:
    2015            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2016        return text
    2017
    2018    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2019        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2020            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2021            text = "".join(
    2022                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2023            )
    2024
    2025        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2026            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2027        )
    2028
    2029    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2030        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2031        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2032        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2033        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2034        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2035        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2036        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2037        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2038        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2039        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2040        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2041
    2042    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2043        return "NULL"
    2044
    2045    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2046        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2047
    2048    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2050        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2051        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2052        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2053        interpolated_values = [
    2054            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2055            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2056        ]
    2057        interpolate = (
    2058            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2059        )
    2060        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2061
    2062    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2063        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2064        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2065        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2066        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2067        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2068        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2069        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2070
    2071    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2072        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2073
    2074    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2075        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2076
    2077    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2078        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2079
    2080    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2081        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2082        asc = not desc
    2083
    2084        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2085        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2086        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2087        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2088        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2089
    2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2091
    2092        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2093        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2094        if nulls_first and (
    2095            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2096        ):
    2097            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2098        elif (
    2099            nulls_last
    2100            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2101            and not nulls_are_last
    2102        ):
    2103            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2104
    2105        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2106        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2107            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2108            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2109                self.unsupported(
    2110                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2111                )
    2112                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2113            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2114                if expression.this.is_int:
    2115                    self.unsupported(
    2116                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2117                    )
    2118                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2119                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2120                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2121                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2122
    2123        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2124        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2125
    2126        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2127
    2128    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2129        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2130        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2131
    2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2133
    2134        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2135
    2136    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2137        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2138        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2139        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2140        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2141        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2142        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2143        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2144        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2145        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2146        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2147        definition_sqls = [
    2148            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2149            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2150        ]
    2151        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2152        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2153        body = "".join(
    2154            (
    2155                partition,
    2156                order,
    2157                measures,
    2158                rows,
    2159                after,
    2160                pattern,
    2161                define,
    2162            )
    2163        )
    2164        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2165        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2166        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2167
    2168    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2169        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2170
    2171        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2172            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2173        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2174            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2175
    2176        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2177        if options:
    2178            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2179
    2180        return csv(
    2181            *sqls,
    2182            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2183            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2184            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2185            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2186            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2187            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2188            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2190            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2191            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2192            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2193            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2194            options,
    2195            sep="",
    2196        )
    2197
    2198    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2199        return ""
    2200
    2201    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2202        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2203    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2204        return [
    2205            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2206            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2207        ]
    2208
    2209    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2210        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2211        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2212        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2213
    2214    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2215        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2216        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2217            into.pop()
    2218
    2219        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2220        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2221        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2222        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2223
    2224        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2225        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2226            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2227            limit.pop()
    2228        else:
    2229            top = ""
    2230
    2231        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2232
    2233        if kind:
    2234            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2235                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2236            else:
    2237                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2238                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2239                        sqls=[
    2240                            self.sql(
    2241                                exp.Struct(
    2242                                    expressions=[
    2243                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2244                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2245                                        else e
    2246                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2247                                    ]
    2248                                )
    2249                            )
    2250                        ]
    2251                    )
    2252                kind = ""
    2253
    2254        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2255        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2256        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2257        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2258        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2259            expression,
    2260            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2261            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2262            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2263        )
    2264
    2265        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2266
    2267        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2268            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2269                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2270            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2271                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2272            else:
    2273                table_kind = ""
    2274            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2275
    2276        return sql
    2277
    2278    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2280        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2281        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2282
    2283    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2284        if expression.expressions:
    2285            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2286        return ""
    2287
    2288    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2289        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2290        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2291        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2292        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2293        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2294
    2295    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2297        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2298
    2299    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2301        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2302        if kind:
    2303            kind = f"{kind}."
    2304        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2305
    2306    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2307        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2308
    2309    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2310        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2311        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2312
    2313        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2314        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2315
    2316        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2317        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2318
    2319    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2320        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2321        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2322
    2323    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2324        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2325            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2326            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2327
    2328            if limit or order:
    2329                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2330
    2331                if limit:
    2332                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2333                if order:
    2334                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2335                return self.sql(select)
    2336
    2337        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2338        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2339
    2340        while stack:
    2341            node = stack.pop()
    2342
    2343            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2344                stack.append(node.expression)
    2345                stack.append(
    2346                    self.maybe_comment(
    2347                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2348                        comments=node.comments,
    2349                        separated=True,
    2350                    )
    2351                )
    2352                stack.append(node.this)
    2353            else:
    2354                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2355
    2356        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2357        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2359
    2360    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2361        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2362
    2363    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2364        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2365        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2366        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2367        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2368
    2369    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2370        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2371
    2372        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2373        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2374
    2375        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2376            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2377                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2378
    2379        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2380            columns = alias.columns
    2381            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2382        else:
    2383            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2384
    2385        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2386        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2387            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2388        else:
    2389            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2390                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2391            elif offset:
    2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2393            else:
    2394                suffix = alias
    2395
    2396        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2397
    2398    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2399        return ""
    2400
    2401    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2402        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2403        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2404
    2405    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2407        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2408        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2409        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2410        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2412        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2413
    2414        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2415
    2416        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2417        if first is None:
    2418            first = ""
    2419        else:
    2420            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2421
    2422        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2423            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2424
    2425        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2426        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2427
    2428    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2429        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2430        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2431
    2432    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2433        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2434        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2435        end = (
    2436            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2437            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2438        )
    2439        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2440
    2441    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2443        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2444        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2445
    2446    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2448        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2449        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2450        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2451
    2452    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2453        return apply_index_offset(
    2454            expression.this,
    2455            expression.expressions,
    2456            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2457        )
    2458
    2459    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2460        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2461        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2463
    2464    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2465        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2466
    2467    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2469        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2470            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2471                this = self.wrap(this)
    2472            return f"ANY{this}"
    2473        return f"ANY {this}"
    2474
    2475    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2476        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2477
    2478    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2480        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2481
    2482        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2483            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2484            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2485
    2486        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2487
    2488        if default:
    2489            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2490
    2491        statements.append("END")
    2492
    2493        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2494            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2495
    2496        return " ".join(statements)
    2497
    2498    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2500        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2501        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2502
    2503    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2504        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2505        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2506        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2507
    2508    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2510        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2511        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2512
    2513    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2514        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2515
    2516        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2517            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2518        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2519            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2520        else:
    2521            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2522
    2523    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2524        args = expression.expressions
    2525        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2526            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2527
    2528        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2529            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2530
    2531        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2532            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2533
    2534        return args
    2535
    2536    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2537        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2538
    2539        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2540        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2541            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2542
    2543        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2544
    2545    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2546        return self.func(
    2547            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2548        )
    2549
    2550    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2551        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2552        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2553
    2554    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2555        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2556        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2557        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2558        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2559        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2560        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2561        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2562        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2563
    2564    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2565        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2566        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2567        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2568        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2569
    2570    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2571        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2572
    2573    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2574        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2575        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2576        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2577
    2578    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2579        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2580
    2581    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2582        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2583        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2584
    2585    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2586        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2587            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2588            if not callable(transform):
    2589                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2590                return ""
    2591
    2592            return transform(self, expression)
    2593
    2594        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2595            return str(expression)
    2596
    2597        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2598            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2599            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2600        else:
    2601            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2602            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2603
    2604        return escaped
    2605
    2606    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2608
    2609    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2610        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2611        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2612
    2613        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2614        if unique_keys is not None:
    2615            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2616        else:
    2617            unique_keys = ""
    2618
    2619        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2620        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2621        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2622        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2623
    2624        return self.func(
    2625            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2626            *expression.expressions,
    2627            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2628        )
    2629
    2630    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2631        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2632
    2633    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2634        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2635        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2636        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2637        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2638        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2639        return self.func(
    2640            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2641        )
    2642
    2643    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2645        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2646        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2647        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2648        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2649        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2650        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2651        return self.func(
    2652            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2653            this,
    2654            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2655        )
    2656
    2657    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2658        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2659        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2660        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2661
    2662        if nested_schema:
    2663            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2664
    2665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2667        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2668        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2669
    2670    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2671        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2672
    2673    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2676        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2677        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2678        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2679        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2680        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2681        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2682        return self.func(
    2683            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2684        )
    2685
    2686    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2689        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2690        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2691        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2692        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2693
    2694    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2697        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2698        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2699        with_ = (
    2700            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2701            if expressions
    2702            else ""
    2703        )
    2704        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2705
    2706    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2707        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2708        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2709        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2710        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2711
    2712        if query:
    2713            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2714        elif unnest:
    2715            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2716        elif field:
    2717            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2718        else:
    2719            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2720
    2721        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2722
    2723    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2724        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2725
    2726    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2727        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2728        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2729            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2730        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2731
    2732        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2733            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2734            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2735
    2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2737        if this:
    2738            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2739            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2740
    2741        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2742
    2743    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2744        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2745
    2746    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2749        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2750        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2751        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2752        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2753
    2754    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2755        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2756
    2757    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2758        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2759        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2760
    2761    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2762        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2763        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2764        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2765        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2766
    2767    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2768        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2769
    2770    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2771        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2772        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2774
    2775    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2776        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2777        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2778
    2779        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2780            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2781        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2782            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2783
    2784        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2785
    2786    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2788
    2789    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2791        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2792        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2793
    2794    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2796        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2797        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2798
    2799    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2801        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2802        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2803
    2804    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2805        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2806
    2807    def and_sql(
    2808        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2809    ) -> str:
    2810        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2811
    2812    def or_sql(
    2813        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2814    ) -> str:
    2815        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2816
    2817    def xor_sql(
    2818        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2819    ) -> str:
    2820        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2821
    2822    def connector_sql(
    2823        self,
    2824        expression: exp.Connector,
    2825        op: str,
    2826        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2827    ) -> str:
    2828        if stack is not None:
    2829            if expression.expressions:
    2830                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2831            else:
    2832                stack.append(expression.right)
    2833                if expression.comments:
    2834                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2835                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2836                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2837            return op
    2838
    2839        stack = [expression]
    2840        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2841        ops = set()
    2842
    2843        while stack:
    2844            node = stack.pop()
    2845            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2846                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2847            else:
    2848                sql = self.sql(node)
    2849                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2850                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2851                else:
    2852                    sqls.append(sql)
    2853
    2854        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2855        return sep.join(sqls)
    2856
    2857    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2858        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2859
    2860    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2861        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2862
    2863    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2864        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2865
    2866    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2867        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2868
    2869    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2870        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2871
    2872    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2873        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2874
    2875    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2876        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2877        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2878        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2879        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2880        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2881        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2882        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2883
    2884    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2886        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2887
    2888    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2889        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2890
    2891    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2892        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2894        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2895
    2896    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2898
    2899    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2901        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2902        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2903        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2904        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2905        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2906
    2907    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2909        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2910        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2911        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2912        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2913        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2914        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2915        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2916        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2917
    2918    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2919        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2920        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2921        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2922        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2923
    2924        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2925            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2926
    2927        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2928
    2929    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2930        return "BEGIN"
    2931
    2932    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2933        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2934        if chain is not None:
    2935            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2936
    2937        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2938
    2939    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2940        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2941        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2942        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2943
    2944    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2946
    2947        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2948        if dtype:
    2949            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2950            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2951            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2952            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2953            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2954
    2955        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2956        if default:
    2957            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2958
    2959        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2960        if comment:
    2961            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2962
    2963        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2964            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2965
    2966        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2967
    2968    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2969        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2970            # Remove db from tables
    2971            expression = expression.transform(
    2972                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2973            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2975        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2976
    2977    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2978        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2979        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2980        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2981        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2982
    2983    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2984        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2985
    2986        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2987            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2988        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2989            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2992        else:
    2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2994
    2995        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2996        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2997        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2998        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    2999        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
    3000
    3001    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3002        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3003            return self.expressions(
    3004                expression,
    3005                key="actions",
    3006                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3007            )
    3008        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3009
    3010    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3011        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3012        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3013        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3014
    3015    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3016        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3017
    3018    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3019        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3020
    3021        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3022            case = exp.case()
    3023            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3024                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3025            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3026
    3027        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3028
    3029        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3030        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3031        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3032
    3033    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3034        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3035
    3036    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3037        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3038
    3039    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3040        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3042        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3043        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3044
    3045    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3046        return self.sql(
    3047            exp.Cast(
    3048                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3049                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3050            )
    3051        )
    3052
    3053    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3054        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3055            return self.func(
    3056                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3057            )
    3058        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3059
    3060    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3061        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3062
    3063        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3064            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3065
    3066        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3067            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3068                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3069
    3070        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3071            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3072                return self.sql(
    3073                    exp.cast(
    3074                        l / r,
    3075                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3076                    )
    3077                )
    3078
    3079        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3080
    3081    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3082        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3083
    3084    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3085        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3086
    3087    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3088        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3089
    3090    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3091        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3092
    3093    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3094        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3095
    3096    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3097        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3098
    3099    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3100        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3101
    3102    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3103        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3104
    3105    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3106        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3107
    3108    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3109        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3110
    3111    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3112        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3113
    3114    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3115        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3116            return self.sql(
    3117                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3118            )
    3119        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3120
    3121    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3122        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3123
    3124    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3125        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3126
    3127    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3128        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3129
    3130    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3131        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3132
    3133    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3134        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3135
    3136    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3137        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3138
    3139    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3140        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3141
    3142    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3143        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3144
    3145    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3146        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3147
    3148    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3149        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3150
    3151    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3152        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3153
    3154    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3155        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3156
    3157    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3158        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3159
    3160    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3161        this = expression.this
    3162        expr = expression.expression
    3163
    3164        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3165            this, expr = expr, this
    3166        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3167            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3168                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3169
    3170            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3171
    3172        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3173
    3174    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3175        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3176        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3178        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3179        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3180
    3181    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3182        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3184
    3185    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3186        args = []
    3187
    3188        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3189            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3190
    3191            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3192                for value in arg_value:
    3193                    args.append(value)
    3194            elif arg_value is not None:
    3195                args.append(arg_value)
    3196
    3197        if self.normalize_functions:
    3198            name = expression.sql_name()
    3199        else:
    3200            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3201
    3202        return self.func(name, *args)
    3203
    3204    def func(
    3205        self,
    3206        name: str,
    3207        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3208        prefix: str = "(",
    3209        suffix: str = ")",
    3210    ) -> str:
    3211        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3212
    3213    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3214        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3215        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3216            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3217        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3218
    3219    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3220        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3221
    3222    def format_time(
    3223        self,
    3224        expression: exp.Expression,
    3225        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3226        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3227    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3228        return format_time(
    3229            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3230            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3231            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3232        )
    3233
    3234    def expressions(
    3235        self,
    3236        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3237        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3238        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3239        flat: bool = False,
    3240        indent: bool = True,
    3241        skip_first: bool = False,
    3242        skip_last: bool = False,
    3243        sep: str = ", ",
    3244        prefix: str = "",
    3245        dynamic: bool = False,
    3246        new_line: bool = False,
    3247    ) -> str:
    3248        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3249
    3250        if not expressions:
    3251            return ""
    3252
    3253        if flat:
    3254            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3255
    3256        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3257
    3258        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3259        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3260            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3261
    3262        result_sqls = []
    3263        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3264            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3265            if not sql:
    3266                continue
    3267
    3268            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3269
    3270            if self.pretty:
    3271                if self.leading_comma:
    3272                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3273                else:
    3274                    result_sqls.append(
    3275                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3276                    )
    3277            else:
    3278                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3279
    3280        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3281            if new_line:
    3282                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3283                result_sqls.append("")
    3284            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3285        else:
    3286            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3287        return (
    3288            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3289            if indent
    3290            else result_sql
    3291        )
    3292
    3293    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3294        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3295        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3296        if flat:
    3297            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3298        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3299
    3300    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3301        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3302        if not property_name:
    3303            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3304        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3305
    3306    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3307        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3308
    3309    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3310        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3311
    3312    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3314        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3315        expressions = (
    3316            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3317        )
    3318        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3319
    3320    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3322        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3323        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3324
    3325    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3326        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3327
    3328    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3329        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3330        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3331        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3332        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3333
    3334        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3335        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3336            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3337            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3338                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3339        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3340            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3341                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3342            else:
    3343                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3344        else:
    3345            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3346        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3347
    3348    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3349        table = expression.this
    3350        table_alias = ""
    3351
    3352        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3353        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3354            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3355            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3356
    3357        this = self.sql(table)
    3358        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3359        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3361
    3362        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3363            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3364        )
    3365
    3366    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3367        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3368            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3369
    3370        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3371
    3372    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3373        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3374            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3375            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3376
    3377        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3378        if not fmt:
    3379            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3380            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3381
    3382        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3383
    3384    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3387        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3388        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3389        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3390
    3391    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3393        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3394        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3395        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3396
    3397    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3398        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3399
    3400    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3401        return ""
    3402
    3403    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3405        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3406        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3407        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3408        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3409
    3410    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3412        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3413
    3414        if having:
    3415            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3416
    3417        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3418
    3419    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3420        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3421        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3422        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3423        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3424        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3425        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3426        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3427        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3428        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3429        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3430        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3431        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3432        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3433
    3434    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3435        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3436        if key_block_size:
    3437            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3438
    3439        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3440        if using:
    3441            return f"USING {using}"
    3442
    3443        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3444        if parser:
    3445            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3446
    3447        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3448        if comment:
    3449            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3450
    3451        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3452        if visible is not None:
    3453            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3454
    3455        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3456        if engine_attr:
    3457            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3458
    3459        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3460        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3461            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3462
    3463        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3464        return ""
    3465
    3466    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3467        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3468        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3469
    3470    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3472        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3474        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3475        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3476        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3477        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3478        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3479        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3480        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3481        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3482
    3483    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3484        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3485            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3486
    3487        case = exp.Case().when(
    3488            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3489            expression.args["true"],
    3490            copy=False,
    3491        )
    3492        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3493        if else_cond:
    3494            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3495
    3496        return self.sql(case)
    3497
    3498    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3500        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3501        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3502        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3503        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3504        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3505
    3506    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3507        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3508
    3509    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3511
    3512    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3513        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3514        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3515        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3516        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3517        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3518        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3519
    3520    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3522        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3523        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3524
    3525    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3527        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3528        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3529
    3530    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3531        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3532
    3533    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3534        arg = expression.this
    3535        if not arg.type:
    3536            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3537
    3538            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3539
    3540        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3541            return self.sql(arg)
    3542
    3543        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3544        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3545
    3546    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3547        this = expression.this
    3548        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3549            return self.sql(this)
    3550
    3551        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3552
    3553    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3554        this = expression.this
    3555        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3556            return self.sql(this)
    3557
    3558        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3559
    3560    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3561        this = expression.this
    3562        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3563
    3564        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3565            return self.sql(
    3566                exp.cast(
    3567                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3568                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3569                )
    3570            )
    3571
    3572        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3573            return self.sql(this)
    3574
    3575        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3576
    3577    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3578        return self.sql(
    3579            exp.func(
    3580                "DATEDIFF",
    3581                expression.this,
    3582                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3583                "day",
    3584            )
    3585        )
    3586
    3587    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3588        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3589            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3590
    3591        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3592        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3593            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3594
    3595        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3596
    3597    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3598        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3599
    3600        return self.func(
    3601            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3602        )
    3603
    3604    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3605        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3606            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3607            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3608            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3609            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3610
    3611        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3612
    3613        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3614        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3615            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3616
    3617        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3618
    3619    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3620        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3621        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3622
    3623    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3624        expression.set(
    3625            "expressions",
    3626            [
    3627                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3628                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3629                else e
    3630                for e in expression.expressions
    3631            ],
    3632        )
    3633
    3634        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3635
    3636    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3637        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3638        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3639
    3640        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3641
    3642    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3643        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3644        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3645
    3646        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3647
    3648        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3649        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3650
    3651        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3652        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3653
    3654        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3655        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3656
    3657        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3658        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3659
    3660        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3661
    3662    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3663    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3664    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3665        to = expression.this
    3666        value = expression.expression
    3667        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3668        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3669        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3670
    3671        if not to or not value:
    3672            return ""
    3673
    3674        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3675        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3676            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3677
    3678        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3679        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3680
    3681        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3682        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3683            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3684
    3685            style_value = style.name
    3686            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3687            if not converted_style:
    3688                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3689
    3690            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3691
    3692            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3693                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3694            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3695                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3696            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3697                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3698            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3699                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3700
    3701        if not transformed:
    3702            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3703
    3704        return self.sql(transformed)
    3705
    3706    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3707        this = expression.this
    3708        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3709            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3710            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3711
    3712        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3713            return f".{this}"
    3714
    3715        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3716        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3717
    3718    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3719        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3720        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3721
    3722    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3723        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3724            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3725
    3726            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3727
    3728        return expression
    3729
    3730    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3731        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3732            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3733            mods = sorted(
    3734                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3735                key=lambda x: 0
    3736                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3737                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3738            )
    3739
    3740            if mods:
    3741                mod = mods[0]
    3742                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3743                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3744                mod.this.replace(this)
    3745                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3746
    3747            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3748
    3749            if agg_func:
    3750                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3751
    3752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3753
    3754    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3755        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3756        if self.pretty:
    3757            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3758        return string

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator: View Source

      37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      38    """
      39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      40
      41    Args:
      42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      43            Default: False.
      44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      46            True or 'always': Always quote.
      47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      49            Default: False.
      50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      52            Default: 2.
      53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      55            Default: 2.
      56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      59            False: Disables function name normalization.
      60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      64            Default: 3
      65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      67            Default: False
      68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      70            line length.
      71            Default: 80
      72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      73            Default: True
      74    """
      75
      76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
      98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
      99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     107        ),
     108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     110        ),
     111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     151    }
     152
     153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     156
     157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     160
     161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     163
     164    # Always do union distinct or union all
     165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     166
     167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     169
     170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     172
     173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     175
     176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     178
     179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     181
     182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     184
     185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     187
     188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     190
     191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     193
     194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     196
     197    # Whether join hints should be generated
     198    JOIN_HINTS = True
     199
     200    # Whether table hints should be generated
     201    TABLE_HINTS = True
     202
     203    # Whether query hints should be generated
     204    QUERY_HINTS = True
     205
     206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     208
     209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     211
     212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     214
     215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     217
     218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     219    RETURNING_END = True
     220
     221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     223
     224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     226
     227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     229
     230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     232
     233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     235
     236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     240
     241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     243
     244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     246
     247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     249
     250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     252
     253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     255
     256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     258
     259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     261
     262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     264
     265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     267
     268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     270
     271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     273
     274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     276
     277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     279
     280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     282
     283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     285
     286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     288
     289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     291
     292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     294
     295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     297
     298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     300
     301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     303
     304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     306
     307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     309
     310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     312
     313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     315
     316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     319
     320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     322
     323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     325
     326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     328
     329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     331
     332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     334
     335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     337
     338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     342
     343    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     344        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     345        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     346        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     347        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     348        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     349        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     350        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     351        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     352        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     353    }
     354
     355    STAR_MAPPING = {
     356        "except": "EXCEPT",
     357        "replace": "REPLACE",
     358    }
     359
     360    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     361        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     362        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     363        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     364        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     365        "DAYS": "DAY",
     366        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     367        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     368        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     369        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     370    }
     371
     372    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     373        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     374        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     375        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     376        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     377        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     378            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     379            if e.args.get("windows")
     380            else ""
     381        ),
     382    }
     383
     384    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     385
     386    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     387
     388    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     389    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     390
     391    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     392        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     393        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     394        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     395        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     396        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     397        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     398        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     399        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     400        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     403        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     404        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     405        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     406        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     412        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     413        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     414        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     415        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     416        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     417        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     418        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     419        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     420        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     421        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     422        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     423        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     426        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     427        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     428        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     429        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     430        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     431        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     432        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     433        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     434        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     435        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     436        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     437        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     438        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     439        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     440        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     443        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     444        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     445        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     446        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     447        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     448        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     449        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     450        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     451        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     452        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     453        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     454        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     455        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     456        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     457        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     458        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     459        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     460        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     461        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     462        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     463        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     464        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     465        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     466        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     467        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     468    }
     469
     470    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     471    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     472
     473    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     474    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     475        exp.Create,
     476        exp.Delete,
     477        exp.Drop,
     478        exp.From,
     479        exp.Insert,
     480        exp.Join,
     481        exp.Select,
     482        exp.Union,
     483        exp.Update,
     484        exp.Where,
     485        exp.With,
     486    )
     487
     488    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     489    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     490        exp.Binary,
     491        exp.Union,
     492    )
     493
     494    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     495    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     496        exp.Column,
     497        exp.Literal,
     498        exp.Neg,
     499        exp.Paren,
     500    )
     501
     502    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     503        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     504        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     505        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     506        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     507    }
     508
     509    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     510    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     511
     512    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     513
     514    __slots__ = (
     515        "pretty",
     516        "identify",
     517        "normalize",
     518        "pad",
     519        "_indent",
     520        "normalize_functions",
     521        "unsupported_level",
     522        "max_unsupported",
     523        "leading_comma",
     524        "max_text_width",
     525        "comments",
     526        "dialect",
     527        "unsupported_messages",
     528        "_escaped_quote_end",
     529        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     530    )
     531
     532    def __init__(
     533        self,
     534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     535        identify: str | bool = False,
     536        normalize: bool = False,
     537        pad: int = 2,
     538        indent: int = 2,
     539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     542        leading_comma: bool = False,
     543        max_text_width: int = 80,
     544        comments: bool = True,
     545        dialect: DialectType = None,
     546    ):
     547        import sqlglot
     548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     549
     550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     551        self.identify = identify
     552        self.normalize = normalize
     553        self.pad = pad
     554        self._indent = indent
     555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     559        self.comments = comments
     560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     561
     562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     563        self.normalize_functions = (
     564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     565        )
     566
     567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     570        )
     571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     573        )
     574
     575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     576        """
     577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     578
     579        Args:
     580            expression: The syntax tree.
     581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     582                it is safer to copy.
     583
     584        Returns:
     585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     586        """
     587        if copy:
     588            expression = expression.copy()
     589
     590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     591
     592        self.unsupported_messages = []
     593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     594
     595        if self.pretty:
     596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     597
     598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     599            return sql
     600
     601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     603                logger.warning(msg)
     604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     606
     607        return sql
     608
     609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     611        if (
     612            not expression.parent
     613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     615        ):
     616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     617
     618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     619
     620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     622
     623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     624
     625        return expression
     626
     627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     631
     632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     634
     635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     637
     638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     641        return comment
     642
     643    def maybe_comment(
     644        self,
     645        sql: str,
     646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     648        separated: bool = False,
     649    ) -> str:
     650        comments = (
     651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     652            if self.comments
     653            else None
     654        )
     655
     656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     657            return sql
     658
     659        comments_sql = " ".join(
     660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     661        )
     662
     663        if not comments_sql:
     664            return sql
     665
     666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     667
     668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     669            return (
     670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     673            )
     674
     675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     676
     677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     678        this_sql = self.indent(
     679            (
     680                self.sql(expression)
     681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     683            ),
     684            level=1,
     685            pad=0,
     686        )
     687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     688
     689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     690        original = self.identify
     691        self.identify = False
     692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     693        self.identify = original
     694        return result
     695
     696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     698            return name.upper()
     699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     700            return name.lower()
     701        return name
     702
     703    def indent(
     704        self,
     705        sql: str,
     706        level: int = 0,
     707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     708        skip_first: bool = False,
     709        skip_last: bool = False,
     710    ) -> str:
     711        if not self.pretty:
     712            return sql
     713
     714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     715        lines = sql.split("\n")
     716
     717        return "\n".join(
     718            (
     719                line
     720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     722            )
     723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     724        )
     725
     726    def sql(
     727        self,
     728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     730        comment: bool = True,
     731    ) -> str:
     732        if not expression:
     733            return ""
     734
     735        if isinstance(expression, str):
     736            return expression
     737
     738        if key:
     739            value = expression.args.get(key)
     740            if value:
     741                return self.sql(value)
     742            return ""
     743
     744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     745
     746        if callable(transform):
     747            sql = transform(self, expression)
     748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     750
     751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     757            else:
     758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     759        else:
     760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     761
     762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     763
     764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     768
     769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     772        options = expression.args.get("options")
     773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     778
     779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     784
     785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     786        return ".".join(
     787            self.sql(part)
     788            for part in (
     789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     790                expression.args.get("db"),
     791                expression.args.get("table"),
     792                expression.args.get("this"),
     793            )
     794            if part
     795        )
     796
     797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     799
     800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     801            join_mark = ""
     802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     803
     804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     805
     806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     810        return f"{position}{this}"
     811
     812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     821
     822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     823            kind = ""
     824
     825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     826
     827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     831
     832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     838        else:
     839            persisted = ""
     840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     841
     842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     844
     845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     848        else:
     849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     850
     851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     852
     853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     855    ) -> str:
     856        this = ""
     857        if expression.this is not None:
     858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     860
     861        start = expression.args.get("start")
     862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     870        cycle_sql = ""
     871
     872        if cycle is not None:
     873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     875
     876        sequence_opts = ""
     877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     880
     881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     883
     884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     885
     886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     888    ) -> str:
     889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     892
     893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     895    ) -> str:
     896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     897
     898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     900
     901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     903
     904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     906        if desc is not None:
     907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     908        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     909
     910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     918
     919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     920        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     921
     922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     926
     927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     928
     929        properties_sql = ""
     930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     932        ):
     933            properties_sql = self.sql(
     934                exp.Properties(
     935                    expressions=[
     936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     938                    ]
     939                )
     940            )
     941
     942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     944
     945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     946        if expression_sql:
     947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     948
     949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     952                        exp.Properties(
     953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     954                        ),
     955                        wrapped=False,
     956                    )
     957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     958                else:
     959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     960
     961        postindex_props_sql = ""
     962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     965                wrapped=False,
     966                prefix=" ",
     967            )
     968
     969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     972
     973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     975
     976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     980                sep=" ",
     981                prefix=" ",
     982                wrapped=False,
     983            )
     984
     985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     986
     987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     990                exp.Properties(
     991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     992                ),
     993                sep=" ",
     994                prefix=" ",
     995                wrapped=False,
     996            )
     997
     998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     999        no_schema_binding = (
    1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1001        )
    1002
    1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1005
    1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1008
    1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1020
    1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1022        if cache is None:
    1023            cache_str = ""
    1024        elif cache is True:
    1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1026        else:
    1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1028
    1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1031
    1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1033
    1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1039
    1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1044
    1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1048
    1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1051        if with_:
    1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1053        return sql
    1054
    1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1057        recursive = (
    1058            "RECURSIVE "
    1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1060            else ""
    1061        )
    1062
    1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1064
    1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1067
    1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1069        if materialized is False:
    1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1071        elif materialized:
    1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1073
    1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1075
    1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1080
    1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1082            columns = ""
    1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1084
    1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1086            alias = "_t"
    1087
    1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1089
    1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1095
    1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1101
    1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1106        return this
    1107
    1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1111
    1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1115
    1116        if escape:
    1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1118        else:
    1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1120
    1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1123
    1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1127
    1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1133
    1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1135        type_value = expression.this
    1136
    1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1139        else:
    1140            type_sql = (
    1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1143                else type_value
    1144            )
    1145
    1146        nested = ""
    1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1148        values = ""
    1149
    1150        if interior:
    1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1158                nested = f" {interior}"
    1159            else:
    1160                nested = f"({interior})"
    1161
    1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1166        ):
    1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1168
    1169        return type_sql
    1170
    1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1176
    1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1189        else:
    1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1192
    1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1205
    1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1207        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1208
    1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1211
    1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1221
    1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1227
    1228        agg = expression.this
    1229        agg_arg = agg.this
    1230        cond = expression.expression.this
    1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1232        return self.sql(agg)
    1233
    1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1237            return ""
    1238
    1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1240
    1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1250        if include:
    1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1256
    1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1258
    1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1267
    1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1269
    1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1272
    1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1274        text = expression.name
    1275        lower = text.lower()
    1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1278        if (
    1279            expression.quoted
    1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1283        ):
    1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1285        return text
    1286
    1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1293
    1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1297
    1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1300
    1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1302        root_properties = []
    1303        with_properties = []
    1304
    1305        for p in expression.expressions:
    1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1308                with_properties.append(p)
    1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1310                root_properties.append(p)
    1311
    1312        return self.root_properties(
    1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1315
    1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1317        if properties.expressions:
    1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1319        return ""
    1320
    1321    def properties(
    1322        self,
    1323        properties: exp.Properties,
    1324        prefix: str = "",
    1325        sep: str = ", ",
    1326        suffix: str = "",
    1327        wrapped: bool = True,
    1328    ) -> str:
    1329        if properties.expressions:
    1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1331            if expressions:
    1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1334        return ""
    1335
    1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1338
    1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1341        for p in properties.expressions:
    1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1345            else:
    1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1347
    1348        return properties_locs
    1349
    1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1354
    1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1359
    1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1361        if not property_name:
    1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1363
    1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1365
    1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1370
    1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1373                like = f"({like})"
    1374
    1375            return like
    1376
    1377        if expression.expressions:
    1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1379
    1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1382
    1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1387
    1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1396
    1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1401
    1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1404            property = "DEFAULT"
    1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1406            property = "ON"
    1407        else:
    1408            property = "OFF"
    1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1410
    1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1416
    1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1419
    1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1425            if default:
    1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1427            elif minimum:
    1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1429            else:
    1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1435
    1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1442
    1443        if autotemp is not None:
    1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1445        elif always:
    1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1447        elif default:
    1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1449        elif manual:
    1450            prop = "MANUAL"
    1451        elif never:
    1452            prop = "NEVER"
    1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1454
    1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1463
    1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1467        if expression.this:
    1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1471
    1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1475
    1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1478
    1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1482        else:
    1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1484
    1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1486
    1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1495
    1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1499        statistics_sql = ""
    1500        if statistics is not None:
    1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1503
    1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1506
    1507        if expression.this:
    1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1510
    1511            if expression.expression:
    1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1514
    1515            sql = f"{sql})"
    1516
    1517        return f"{sql})"
    1518
    1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1522
    1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1525        else:
    1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1527
    1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1534        if is_function:
    1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1537
    1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1546
    1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1549        else:
    1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1551
    1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1554
    1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1556        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1557
    1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1560
    1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1563
    1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1570
    1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1572        return expression.name
    1573
    1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1575        return expression.name
    1576
    1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1579
    1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1582
    1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1586
    1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1588        if expressions:
    1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1591
    1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1593
    1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1596
    1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1611
    1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1614
    1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1620
    1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1626
    1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1628        return ".".join(
    1629            self.sql(part)
    1630            for part in (
    1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1632                expression.args.get("db"),
    1633                expression.args.get("this"),
    1634            )
    1635            if part is not None
    1636        )
    1637
    1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1651        joins = self.indent(
    1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1653        )
    1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1655
    1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1657        if file_format:
    1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1661
    1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1663        if ordinality:
    1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1665            alias = ""
    1666
    1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1668        if when:
    1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1670
    1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1672
    1673    def tablesample_sql(
    1674        self,
    1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1676        sep: str = " AS ",
    1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1678    ) -> str:
    1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1680            table = expression.this.copy()
    1681            table.set("alias", None)
    1682            this = self.sql(table)
    1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1684        else:
    1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1686            alias = ""
    1687
    1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1697
    1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1701
    1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1705
    1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1708            expr = f"({expr})"
    1709
    1710        return (
    1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1712        )
    1713
    1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1716
    1717        if expression.this:
    1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1719            if not expressions:
    1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1721
    1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1727
    1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1733        if include_nulls is not None:
    1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1735        else:
    1736            nulls = ""
    1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1738
    1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1744
    1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1747
    1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1758        else:
    1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1762
    1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1765
    1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1771            values = (
    1772                f"({values})"
    1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1774                else values
    1775            )
    1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1777
    1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1781
    1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1783
    1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1785            row = tup.expressions
    1786
    1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1788                row = [
    1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1790                ]
    1791
    1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1793
    1794        if self.pretty:
    1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1800
    1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1804
    1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1807
    1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1812
    1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1815
    1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1818        if group_by_all is True:
    1819            modifier = " ALL"
    1820        elif group_by_all is False:
    1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1822        else:
    1823            modifier = ""
    1824
    1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1826
    1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1828        grouping_sets = (
    1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1830        )
    1831
    1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1835        else:
    1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1838
    1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1842        else:
    1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1845
    1846        groupings = csv(
    1847            grouping_sets,
    1848            cube_sql,
    1849            rollup_sql,
    1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1852        )
    1853
    1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1856
    1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1858
    1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1862
    1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1869        return start + connect
    1870
    1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1873
    1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1876            side = None
    1877        else:
    1878            side = expression.side
    1879
    1880        op_sql = " ".join(
    1881            op
    1882            for op in (
    1883                expression.method,
    1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1885                side,
    1886                expression.kind,
    1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1888            )
    1889            if op
    1890        )
    1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1895
    1896        if not on_sql and using:
    1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1898
    1899        this = expression.this
    1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1901
    1902        if on_sql:
    1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1905            if using:
    1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1907            else:
    1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1909        elif not op_sql:
    1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1911                return f" {this_sql}"
    1912
    1913            return f", {this_sql}"
    1914
    1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1917
    1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1922
    1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1925
    1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1927        if cross_apply is True:
    1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1929        elif cross_apply is False:
    1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1931        else:
    1932            op = ""
    1933
    1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1935
    1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1938
    1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1946
    1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1950
    1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1953
    1954        args = [
    1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1957            if e
    1958        ]
    1959
    1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1964
    1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1966
    1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1969        value = expression.expression
    1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1974
    1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1984
    1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1986        expressions = (
    1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1988        )
    1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1991
    1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1994
    1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1998            return ""
    1999
    2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2004
    2005        if wait is not None:
    2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2008            else:
    2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2010
    2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2012
    2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2014        text = expression.this or ""
    2015        if expression.is_string:
    2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2017        return text
    2018
    2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2022            text = "".join(
    2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2024            )
    2025
    2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2028        )
    2029
    2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2042
    2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2044        return "NULL"
    2045
    2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2048
    2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2054        interpolated_values = [
    2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2057        ]
    2058        interpolate = (
    2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2060        )
    2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2062
    2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2071
    2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2074
    2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2077
    2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2080
    2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2083        asc = not desc
    2084
    2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2090
    2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2092
    2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2095        if nulls_first and (
    2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2097        ):
    2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2099        elif (
    2100            nulls_last
    2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2102            and not nulls_are_last
    2103        ):
    2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2105
    2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2110                self.unsupported(
    2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2112                )
    2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2115                if expression.this.is_int:
    2116                    self.unsupported(
    2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2118                    )
    2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2123
    2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2126
    2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2128
    2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2132
    2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2134
    2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2136
    2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2148        definition_sqls = [
    2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2151        ]
    2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2154        body = "".join(
    2155            (
    2156                partition,
    2157                order,
    2158                measures,
    2159                rows,
    2160                after,
    2161                pattern,
    2162                define,
    2163            )
    2164        )
    2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2168
    2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2171
    2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2176
    2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2178        if options:
    2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2180
    2181        return csv(
    2182            *sqls,
    2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2195            options,
    2196            sep="",
    2197        )
    2198
    2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2200        return ""
    2201
    2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2205        return [
    2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2208        ]
    2209
    2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2214
    2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2218            into.pop()
    2219
    2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2224
    2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2228            limit.pop()
    2229        else:
    2230            top = ""
    2231
    2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2233
    2234        if kind:
    2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2237            else:
    2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2240                        sqls=[
    2241                            self.sql(
    2242                                exp.Struct(
    2243                                    expressions=[
    2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2246                                        else e
    2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2248                                    ]
    2249                                )
    2250                            )
    2251                        ]
    2252                    )
    2253                kind = ""
    2254
    2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2260            expression,
    2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2264        )
    2265
    2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2267
    2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2273            else:
    2274                table_kind = ""
    2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2276
    2277        return sql
    2278
    2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2283
    2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2285        if expression.expressions:
    2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2287        return ""
    2288
    2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2295
    2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2299
    2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2303        if kind:
    2304            kind = f"{kind}."
    2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2306
    2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2309
    2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2313
    2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2316
    2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2319
    2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2323
    2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2328
    2329            if limit or order:
    2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2331
    2332                if limit:
    2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2334                if order:
    2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2336                return self.sql(select)
    2337
    2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2340
    2341        while stack:
    2342            node = stack.pop()
    2343
    2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2345                stack.append(node.expression)
    2346                stack.append(
    2347                    self.maybe_comment(
    2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2349                        comments=node.comments,
    2350                        separated=True,
    2351                    )
    2352                )
    2353                stack.append(node.this)
    2354            else:
    2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2356
    2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2360
    2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2362        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2363
    2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2369
    2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2372
    2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2375
    2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2379
    2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2381            columns = alias.columns
    2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2383        else:
    2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2385
    2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2389        else:
    2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2392            elif offset:
    2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2394            else:
    2395                suffix = alias
    2396
    2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2398
    2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2400        return ""
    2401
    2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2405
    2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2414
    2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2416
    2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2418        if first is None:
    2419            first = ""
    2420        else:
    2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2422
    2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2425
    2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2427        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2428
    2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2432
    2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2436        end = (
    2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2439        )
    2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2441
    2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2446
    2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2452
    2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2454        return apply_index_offset(
    2455            expression.this,
    2456            expression.expressions,
    2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2458        )
    2459
    2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2464
    2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2467
    2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2472                this = self.wrap(this)
    2473            return f"ANY{this}"
    2474        return f"ANY {this}"
    2475
    2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2478
    2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2482
    2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2486
    2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2488
    2489        if default:
    2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2491
    2492        statements.append("END")
    2493
    2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2496
    2497        return " ".join(statements)
    2498
    2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2503
    2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2508
    2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2513
    2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2516
    2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2521        else:
    2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2523
    2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2525        args = expression.expressions
    2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2528
    2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2531
    2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2534
    2535        return args
    2536
    2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2539
    2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2543
    2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2545
    2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2547        return self.func(
    2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2549        )
    2550
    2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2554
    2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2564
    2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2570
    2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2573
    2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2578
    2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2581
    2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2585
    2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2589            if not callable(transform):
    2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2591                return ""
    2592
    2593            return transform(self, expression)
    2594
    2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2596            return str(expression)
    2597
    2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2601        else:
    2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2604
    2605        return escaped
    2606
    2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2609
    2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2613
    2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2615        if unique_keys is not None:
    2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2617        else:
    2618            unique_keys = ""
    2619
    2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2624
    2625        return self.func(
    2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2627            *expression.expressions,
    2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2629        )
    2630
    2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2633
    2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2640        return self.func(
    2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2642        )
    2643
    2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2652        return self.func(
    2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2654            this,
    2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2656        )
    2657
    2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2662
    2663        if nested_schema:
    2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2665
    2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2670
    2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2673
    2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2683        return self.func(
    2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2685        )
    2686
    2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2694
    2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2700        with_ = (
    2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2702            if expressions
    2703            else ""
    2704        )
    2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2706
    2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2712
    2713        if query:
    2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2715        elif unnest:
    2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2717        elif field:
    2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2719        else:
    2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2721
    2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2723
    2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2726
    2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2732
    2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2736
    2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2738        if this:
    2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2741
    2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2743
    2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2746
    2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2754
    2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2757
    2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2761
    2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2767
    2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2770
    2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2775
    2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2779
    2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2784
    2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2786
    2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2789
    2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2794
    2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2799
    2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2804
    2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2807
    2808    def and_sql(
    2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2810    ) -> str:
    2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2812
    2813    def or_sql(
    2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2815    ) -> str:
    2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2817
    2818    def xor_sql(
    2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2820    ) -> str:
    2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2822
    2823    def connector_sql(
    2824        self,
    2825        expression: exp.Connector,
    2826        op: str,
    2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2828    ) -> str:
    2829        if stack is not None:
    2830            if expression.expressions:
    2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2832            else:
    2833                stack.append(expression.right)
    2834                if expression.comments:
    2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2838            return op
    2839
    2840        stack = [expression]
    2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2842        ops = set()
    2843
    2844        while stack:
    2845            node = stack.pop()
    2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2848            else:
    2849                sql = self.sql(node)
    2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2852                else:
    2853                    sqls.append(sql)
    2854
    2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2856        return sep.join(sqls)
    2857
    2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2860
    2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2863
    2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2866
    2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2869
    2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2872
    2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2875
    2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2884
    2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2888
    2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2891
    2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2896
    2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2899
    2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2907
    2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2918
    2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2924
    2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2927
    2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2929
    2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2931        return "BEGIN"
    2932
    2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2935        if chain is not None:
    2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2937
    2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2939
    2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2944
    2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947
    2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2949        if dtype:
    2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2955
    2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2957        if default:
    2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2959
    2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2961        if comment:
    2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2963
    2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2966
    2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2968
    2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2971            # Remove db from tables
    2972            expression = expression.transform(
    2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2977
    2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2983
    2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2986
    2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2993        else:
    2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2995
    2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
    3001
    3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3004            return self.expressions(
    3005                expression,
    3006                key="actions",
    3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3008            )
    3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3010
    3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3015
    3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3018
    3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3021
    3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3023            case = exp.case()
    3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3027
    3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3029
    3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3033
    3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3036
    3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3039
    3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3045
    3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3047        return self.sql(
    3048            exp.Cast(
    3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3051            )
    3052        )
    3053
    3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3056            return self.func(
    3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3058            )
    3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3060
    3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3063
    3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3066
    3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3070
    3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3073                return self.sql(
    3074                    exp.cast(
    3075                        l / r,
    3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3077                    )
    3078                )
    3079
    3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3081
    3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3084
    3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3087
    3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3090
    3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3093
    3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3096
    3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3099
    3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3102
    3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3105
    3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3108
    3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3111
    3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3114
    3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3117            return self.sql(
    3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3119            )
    3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3121
    3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3124
    3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3127
    3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3130
    3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3133
    3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3136
    3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3139
    3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3142
    3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3145
    3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3148
    3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3151
    3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3154
    3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3157
    3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3160
    3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3162        this = expression.this
    3163        expr = expression.expression
    3164
    3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3166            this, expr = expr, this
    3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3170
    3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3172
    3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3174
    3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3181
    3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3185
    3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3187        args = []
    3188
    3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3191
    3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3193                for value in arg_value:
    3194                    args.append(value)
    3195            elif arg_value is not None:
    3196                args.append(arg_value)
    3197
    3198        if self.normalize_functions:
    3199            name = expression.sql_name()
    3200        else:
    3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3202
    3203        return self.func(name, *args)
    3204
    3205    def func(
    3206        self,
    3207        name: str,
    3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3209        prefix: str = "(",
    3210        suffix: str = ")",
    3211    ) -> str:
    3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3213
    3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3219
    3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3222
    3223    def format_time(
    3224        self,
    3225        expression: exp.Expression,
    3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3229        return format_time(
    3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3233        )
    3234
    3235    def expressions(
    3236        self,
    3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3240        flat: bool = False,
    3241        indent: bool = True,
    3242        skip_first: bool = False,
    3243        skip_last: bool = False,
    3244        sep: str = ", ",
    3245        prefix: str = "",
    3246        dynamic: bool = False,
    3247        new_line: bool = False,
    3248    ) -> str:
    3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3250
    3251        if not expressions:
    3252            return ""
    3253
    3254        if flat:
    3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3256
    3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3258
    3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3262
    3263        result_sqls = []
    3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3266            if not sql:
    3267                continue
    3268
    3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3270
    3271            if self.pretty:
    3272                if self.leading_comma:
    3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3274                else:
    3275                    result_sqls.append(
    3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3277                    )
    3278            else:
    3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3280
    3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3282            if new_line:
    3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3284                result_sqls.append("")
    3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3286        else:
    3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3288        return (
    3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3290            if indent
    3291            else result_sql
    3292        )
    3293
    3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3297        if flat:
    3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3300
    3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3303        if not property_name:
    3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3306
    3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3309
    3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3312
    3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3316        expressions = (
    3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3318        )
    3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3320
    3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3325
    3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3328
    3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3334
    3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3343            else:
    3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3345        else:
    3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3348
    3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3350        table = expression.this
    3351        table_alias = ""
    3352
    3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3357
    3358        this = self.sql(table)
    3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3362
    3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3365        )
    3366
    3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3370
    3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3372
    3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3377
    3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3379        if not fmt:
    3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3382
    3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3384
    3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3391
    3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3397
    3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3400
    3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3402        return ""
    3403
    3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3410
    3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3414
    3415        if having:
    3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3417
    3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3419
    3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3434
    3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3437        if key_block_size:
    3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3439
    3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3441        if using:
    3442            return f"USING {using}"
    3443
    3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3445        if parser:
    3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3447
    3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3449        if comment:
    3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3451
    3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3453        if visible is not None:
    3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3455
    3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3457        if engine_attr:
    3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3459
    3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3463
    3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3465        return ""
    3466
    3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3470
    3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3483
    3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3487
    3488        case = exp.Case().when(
    3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3490            expression.args["true"],
    3491            copy=False,
    3492        )
    3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3494        if else_cond:
    3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3496
    3497        return self.sql(case)
    3498
    3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3506
    3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3509
    3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3512
    3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3520
    3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3525
    3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3530
    3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3533
    3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3535        arg = expression.this
    3536        if not arg.type:
    3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3538
    3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3540
    3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3542            return self.sql(arg)
    3543
    3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3546
    3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3548        this = expression.this
    3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3550            return self.sql(this)
    3551
    3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3553
    3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3555        this = expression.this
    3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3557            return self.sql(this)
    3558
    3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3560
    3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3562        this = expression.this
    3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3564
    3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3566            return self.sql(
    3567                exp.cast(
    3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3570                )
    3571            )
    3572
    3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3574            return self.sql(this)
    3575
    3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3577
    3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3579        return self.sql(
    3580            exp.func(
    3581                "DATEDIFF",
    3582                expression.this,
    3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3584                "day",
    3585            )
    3586        )
    3587
    3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3591
    3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3595
    3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3597
    3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3600
    3601        return self.func(
    3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3603        )
    3604
    3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3611
    3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3613
    3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3617
    3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3619
    3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3623
    3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3625        expression.set(
    3626            "expressions",
    3627            [
    3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3630                else e
    3631                for e in expression.expressions
    3632            ],
    3633        )
    3634
    3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3636
    3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3640
    3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3642
    3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3646
    3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3648
    3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3651
    3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3654
    3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3657
    3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3660
    3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3662
    3663    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3664    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3666        to = expression.this
    3667        value = expression.expression
    3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3671
    3672        if not to or not value:
    3673            return ""
    3674
    3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3678
    3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3681
    3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3685
    3686            style_value = style.name
    3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3688            if not converted_style:
    3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3690
    3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3692
    3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3701
    3702        if not transformed:
    3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3704
    3705        return self.sql(transformed)
    3706
    3707    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3708        this = expression.this
    3709        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3710            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3711            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3712
    3713        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3714            return f".{this}"
    3715
    3716        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3717        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3718
    3719    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3720        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3721        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3722
    3723    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3724        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3725            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3726
    3727            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3728
    3729        return expression
    3730
    3731    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3732        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3733            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3734            mods = sorted(
    3735                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3736                key=lambda x: 0
    3737                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3738                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3739            )
    3740
    3741            if mods:
    3742                mod = mods[0]
    3743                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3744                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3745                mod.this.replace(this)
    3746                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3747
    3748            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3749
    3750            if agg_func:
    3751                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3752
    3753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3754
    3755    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3756        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3757        if self.pretty:
    3758            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3759        return string

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None) View Source

    532    def __init__(
    533        self,
    534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    535        identify: str | bool = False,
    536        normalize: bool = False,
    537        pad: int = 2,
    538        indent: int = 2,
    539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    542        leading_comma: bool = False,
    543        max_text_width: int = 80,
    544        comments: bool = True,
    545        dialect: DialectType = None,
    546    ):
    547        import sqlglot
    548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    549
    550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    551        self.identify = identify
    552        self.normalize = normalize
    553        self.pad = pad
    554        self._indent = indent
    555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    559        self.comments = comments
    560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    561
    562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    563        self.normalize_functions = (
    564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    565        )
    566
    567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    570        )
    571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
    572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    573        )

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    576        """
    577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    578
    579        Args:
    580            expression: The syntax tree.
    581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    582                it is safer to copy.
    583
    584        Returns:
    585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    586        """
    587        if copy:
    588            expression = expression.copy()
    589
    590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    591
    592        self.unsupported_messages = []
    593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    594
    595        if self.pretty:
    596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    597
    598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    599            return sql
    600
    601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    603                logger.warning(msg)
    604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    606
    607        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    611        if (
    612            not expression.parent
    613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
    614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
    615        ):
    616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
    617
    618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    619
    620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    622
    623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    624
    625        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    641        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    643    def maybe_comment(
    644        self,
    645        sql: str,
    646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    648        separated: bool = False,
    649    ) -> str:
    650        comments = (
    651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    652            if self.comments
    653            else None
    654        )
    655
    656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    657            return sql
    658
    659        comments_sql = " ".join(
    660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    661        )
    662
    663        if not comments_sql:
    664            return sql
    665
    666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    667
    668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    669            return (
    670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    673            )
    674
    675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    678        this_sql = self.indent(
    679            (
    680                self.sql(expression)
    681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
    683            ),
    684            level=1,
    685            pad=0,
    686        )
    687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    690        original = self.identify
    691        self.identify = False
    692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    693        self.identify = original
    694        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    698            return name.upper()
    699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    700            return name.lower()
    701        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    703    def indent(
    704        self,
    705        sql: str,
    706        level: int = 0,
    707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    708        skip_first: bool = False,
    709        skip_last: bool = False,
    710    ) -> str:
    711        if not self.pretty:
    712            return sql
    713
    714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    715        lines = sql.split("\n")
    716
    717        return "\n".join(
    718            (
    719                line
    720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    722            )
    723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    724        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    726    def sql(
    727        self,
    728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    730        comment: bool = True,
    731    ) -> str:
    732        if not expression:
    733            return ""
    734
    735        if isinstance(expression, str):
    736            return expression
    737
    738        if key:
    739            value = expression.args.get(key)
    740            if value:
    741                return self.sql(value)
    742            return ""
    743
    744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    745
    746        if callable(transform):
    747            sql = transform(self, expression)
    748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    750
    751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    757            else:
    758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    759        else:
    760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    761
    762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str: View Source

    764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str: View Source

    769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    772        options = expression.args.get("options")
    773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str: View Source

    779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    786        return ".".join(
    787            self.sql(part)
    788            for part in (
    789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    790                expression.args.get("db"),
    791                expression.args.get("table"),
    792                expression.args.get("this"),
    793            )
    794            if part
    795        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    799
    800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
    801            join_mark = ""
    802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    803
    804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str: View Source

    806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    810        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    821
    822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    823            kind = ""
    824
    825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    838        else:
    839            persisted = ""
    840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    848        else:
    849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    850
    851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    855    ) -> str:
    856        this = ""
    857        if expression.this is not None:
    858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    860
    861        start = expression.args.get("start")
    862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    870        cycle_sql = ""
    871
    872        if cycle is not None:
    873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    875
    876        sequence_opts = ""
    877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    880
    881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    883
    884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    888    ) -> str:
    889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str: View Source

    893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    895    ) -> str:
    896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    906        if desc is not None:
    907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    908        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    920        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str: View Source

     922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     926
     927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     928
     929        properties_sql = ""
     930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     932        ):
     933            properties_sql = self.sql(
     934                exp.Properties(
     935                    expressions=[
     936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     938                    ]
     939                )
     940            )
     941
     942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     944
     945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     946        if expression_sql:
     947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     948
     949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     952                        exp.Properties(
     953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     954                        ),
     955                        wrapped=False,
     956                    )
     957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     958                else:
     959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     960
     961        postindex_props_sql = ""
     962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     965                wrapped=False,
     966                prefix=" ",
     967            )
     968
     969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     972
     973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     975
     976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     980                sep=" ",
     981                prefix=" ",
     982                wrapped=False,
     983            )
     984
     985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     986
     987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     990                exp.Properties(
     991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     992                ),
     993                sep=" ",
     994                prefix=" ",
     995                wrapped=False,
     996            )
     997
     998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     999        no_schema_binding = (
    1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1001        )
    1002
    1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1005
    1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str: View Source

    1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1020
    1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1022        if cache is None:
    1023            cache_str = ""
    1024        elif cache is True:
    1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1026        else:
    1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1028
    1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1031
    1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str: View Source

    1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str: View Source

    1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str: View Source

    1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1051        if with_:
    1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1053        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str: View Source

    1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1057        recursive = (
    1058            "RECURSIVE "
    1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1060            else ""
    1061        )
    1062
    1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str: View Source

    1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1067
    1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1069        if materialized is False:
    1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1071        elif materialized:
    1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1073
    1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str: View Source

    1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1080
    1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1082            columns = ""
    1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1084
    1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1086            alias = "_t"
    1087
    1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str: View Source

    1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str: View Source

    1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str: View Source

    1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1106        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str: View Source

    1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1111
    1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1115
    1116        if escape:
    1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1118        else:
    1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1120
    1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str: View Source

    1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str: View Source

    1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str: View Source

    1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1135        type_value = expression.this
    1136
    1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1139        else:
    1140            type_sql = (
    1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1143                else type_value
    1144            )
    1145
    1146        nested = ""
    1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1148        values = ""
    1149
    1150        if interior:
    1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1158                nested = f" {interior}"
    1159            else:
    1160                nested = f"({interior})"
    1161
    1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1166        ):
    1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1168
    1169        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str: View Source

    1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str: View Source

    1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1189        else:
    1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str: View Source

    1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1207        return self.set_operations(expression)

def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str: View Source

    1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str: View Source

    1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1227
    1228        agg = expression.this
    1229        agg_arg = agg.this
    1230        cond = expression.expression.this
    1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1232        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str: View Source

    1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1237            return ""
    1238
    1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str: View Source

    1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1250        if include:
    1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1256
    1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str: View Source

    1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1267
    1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1269
    1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str: View Source

    1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1274        text = expression.name
    1275        lower = text.lower()
    1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1278        if (
    1279            expression.quoted
    1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1283        ):
    1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1285        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str: View Source

    1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str: View Source

    1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1302        root_properties = []
    1303        with_properties = []
    1304
    1305        for p in expression.expressions:
    1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1308                with_properties.append(p)
    1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1310                root_properties.append(p)
    1311
    1312        return self.root_properties(
    1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1317        if properties.expressions:
    1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1319        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1321    def properties(
    1322        self,
    1323        properties: exp.Properties,
    1324        prefix: str = "",
    1325        sep: str = ", ",
    1326        suffix: str = "",
    1327        wrapped: bool = True,
    1328    ) -> str:
    1329        if properties.expressions:
    1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1331            if expressions:
    1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1334        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1341        for p in properties.expressions:
    1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1345            else:
    1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1347
    1348        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1359
    1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1361        if not property_name:
    1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1363
    1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1370
    1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1373                like = f"({like})"
    1374
    1375            return like
    1376
    1377        if expression.expressions:
    1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1379
    1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str: View Source

    1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str: View Source

    1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str: View Source

    1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str: View Source

    1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1404            property = "DEFAULT"
    1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1406            property = "ON"
    1407        else:
    1408            property = "OFF"
    1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str: View Source

    1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1416
    1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1425            if default:
    1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1427            elif minimum:
    1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1429            else:
    1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str: View Source

    1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1442
    1443        if autotemp is not None:
    1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1445        elif always:
    1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1447        elif default:
    1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1449        elif manual:
    1450            prop = "MANUAL"
    1451        elif never:
    1452            prop = "NEVER"
    1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str: View Source

    1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1467        if expression.this:
    1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1471
    1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str: View Source

    1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1478
    1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1482        else:
    1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1484
    1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str: View Source

    1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1499        statistics_sql = ""
    1500        if statistics is not None:
    1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str: View Source

    1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1506
    1507        if expression.this:
    1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1510
    1511            if expression.expression:
    1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1514
    1515            sql = f"{sql})"
    1516
    1517        return f"{sql})"

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str: View Source

    1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1522
    1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1525        else:
    1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1527
    1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1534        if is_function:
    1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1537
    1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1546
    1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1549        else:
    1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1551
    1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1556        return self.set_operations(expression)

def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str: View Source

    1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str: View Source

    1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str: View Source

    1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1572        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str: View Source

    1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1575        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str: View Source

    1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1579
    1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1582
    1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1586
    1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1588        if expressions:
    1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1591
    1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str: View Source

    1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str: View Source

    1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str: View Source

    1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str: View Source

    1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1628        return ".".join(
    1629            self.sql(part)
    1630            for part in (
    1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1632                expression.args.get("db"),
    1633                expression.args.get("this"),
    1634            )
    1635            if part is not None
    1636        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1651        joins = self.indent(
    1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1653        )
    1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1655
    1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1657        if file_format:
    1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1661
    1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1663        if ordinality:
    1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1665            alias = ""
    1666
    1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1668        if when:
    1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1670
    1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1673    def tablesample_sql(
    1674        self,
    1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1676        sep: str = " AS ",
    1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1678    ) -> str:
    1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1680            table = expression.this.copy()
    1681            table.set("alias", None)
    1682            this = self.sql(table)
    1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1684        else:
    1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1686            alias = ""
    1687
    1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1697
    1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1701
    1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1705
    1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1708            expr = f"({expr})"
    1709
    1710        return (
    1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1712        )

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str: View Source

    1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1716
    1717        if expression.this:
    1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1719            if not expressions:
    1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1721
    1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1727
    1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1733        if include_nulls is not None:
    1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1735        else:
    1736            nulls = ""
    1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str: View Source

    1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str: View Source

    1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str: View Source

    1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1758        else:
    1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1765
    1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1771            values = (
    1772                f"({values})"
    1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1774                else values
    1775            )
    1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1777
    1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1781
    1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1783
    1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1785            row = tup.expressions
    1786
    1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1788                row = [
    1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1790                ]
    1791
    1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1793
    1794        if self.pretty:
    1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1800
    1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str: View Source

    1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str: View Source

    1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str: View Source

    1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str: View Source

    1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1818        if group_by_all is True:
    1819            modifier = " ALL"
    1820        elif group_by_all is False:
    1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1822        else:
    1823            modifier = ""
    1824
    1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1826
    1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1828        grouping_sets = (
    1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1830        )
    1831
    1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1835        else:
    1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1838
    1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1842        else:
    1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1845
    1846        groupings = csv(
    1847            grouping_sets,
    1848            cube_sql,
    1849            rollup_sql,
    1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1852        )
    1853
    1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1856
    1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str: View Source

    1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str: View Source

    1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1869        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str: View Source

    1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str: View Source

    1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1876            side = None
    1877        else:
    1878            side = expression.side
    1879
    1880        op_sql = " ".join(
    1881            op
    1882            for op in (
    1883                expression.method,
    1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1885                side,
    1886                expression.kind,
    1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1888            )
    1889            if op
    1890        )
    1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1895
    1896        if not on_sql and using:
    1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1898
    1899        this = expression.this
    1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1901
    1902        if on_sql:
    1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1905            if using:
    1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1907            else:
    1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1909        elif not op_sql:
    1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1911                return f" {this_sql}"
    1912
    1913            return f", {this_sql}"
    1914
    1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1925
    1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1927        if cross_apply is True:
    1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1929        elif cross_apply is False:
    1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1931        else:
    1932            op = ""
    1933
    1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1938
    1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1946
    1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1953
    1954        args = [
    1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1957            if e
    1958        ]
    1959
    1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1964
    1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str: View Source

    1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1969        value = expression.expression
    1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str: View Source

    1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str: View Source

    1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1986        expressions = (
    1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1988        )
    1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str: View Source

    1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str: View Source

    1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1998            return ""
    1999
    2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2004
    2005        if wait is not None:
    2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2008            else:
    2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2010
    2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str: View Source

    2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2014        text = expression.this or ""
    2015        if expression.is_string:
    2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2017        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2022            text = "".join(
    2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2024            )
    2025
    2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2028        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str: View Source

    2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2044        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str: View Source

    2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2054        interpolated_values = [
    2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2057        ]
    2058        interpolate = (
    2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2060        )
    2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str: View Source

    2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str: View Source

    2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str: View Source

    2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str: View Source

    2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str: View Source

    2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2083        asc = not desc
    2084
    2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2090
    2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2092
    2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2095        if nulls_first and (
    2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2097        ):
    2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2099        elif (
    2100            nulls_last
    2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2102            and not nulls_are_last
    2103        ):
    2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2105
    2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2110                self.unsupported(
    2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2112                )
    2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2115                if expression.this.is_int:
    2116                    self.unsupported(
    2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2118                    )
    2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2123
    2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2126
    2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str: View Source

    2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2132
    2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2134
    2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2148        definition_sqls = [
    2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2151        ]
    2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2154        body = "".join(
    2155            (
    2156                partition,
    2157                order,
    2158                measures,
    2159                rows,
    2160                after,
    2161                pattern,
    2162                define,
    2163            )
    2164        )
    2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2171
    2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2176
    2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2178        if options:
    2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2180
    2181        return csv(
    2182            *sqls,
    2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2195            options,
    2196            sep="",
    2197        )

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str: View Source

    2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2200        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2205        return [
    2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2208        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str: View Source

    2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2218            into.pop()
    2219
    2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2224
    2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2228            limit.pop()
    2229        else:
    2230            top = ""
    2231
    2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2233
    2234        if kind:
    2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2237            else:
    2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2240                        sqls=[
    2241                            self.sql(
    2242                                exp.Struct(
    2243                                    expressions=[
    2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2246                                        else e
    2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2248                                    ]
    2249                                )
    2250                            )
    2251                        ]
    2252                    )
    2253                kind = ""
    2254
    2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2260            expression,
    2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2264        )
    2265
    2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2267
    2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2273            else:
    2274                table_kind = ""
    2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2276
    2277        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2285        if expression.expressions:
    2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2287        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str: View Source

    2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str: View Source

    2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str: View Source

    2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2303        if kind:
    2304            kind = f"{kind}."
    2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str: View Source

    2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2313
    2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2316
    2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str: View Source

    2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2328
    2329            if limit or order:
    2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2331
    2332                if limit:
    2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2334                if order:
    2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2336                return self.sql(select)
    2337
    2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2340
    2341        while stack:
    2342            node = stack.pop()
    2343
    2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2345                stack.append(node.expression)
    2346                stack.append(
    2347                    self.maybe_comment(
    2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2349                        comments=node.comments,
    2350                        separated=True,
    2351                    )
    2352                )
    2353                stack.append(node.this)
    2354            else:
    2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2356
    2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2362        return self.set_operations(expression)

def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2372
    2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2375
    2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2379
    2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2381            columns = alias.columns
    2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2383        else:
    2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2385
    2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2389        else:
    2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2392            elif offset:
    2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2394            else:
    2395                suffix = alias
    2396
    2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str: View Source

    2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2400        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str: View Source

    2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str: View Source

    2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2414
    2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2416
    2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2418        if first is None:
    2419            first = ""
    2420        else:
    2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2422
    2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2425
    2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2427        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str: View Source

    2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2436        end = (
    2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2439        )
    2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str: View Source

    2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str: View Source

    2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2454        return apply_index_offset(
    2455            expression.this,
    2456            expression.expressions,
    2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2458        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str: View Source

    2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str: View Source

    2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str: View Source

    2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2472                this = self.wrap(this)
    2473            return f"ANY{this}"
    2474        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str: View Source

    2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str: View Source

    2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2482
    2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2486
    2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2488
    2489        if default:
    2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2491
    2492        statements.append("END")
    2493
    2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2496
    2497        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str: View Source

    2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str: View Source

    2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str: View Source

    2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str: View Source

    2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2516
    2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2521        else:
    2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2525        args = expression.expressions
    2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2528
    2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2531
    2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2534
    2535        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str: View Source

    2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2539
    2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2543
    2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str: View Source

    2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2547        return self.func(
    2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2549        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str: View Source

    2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str: View Source

    2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str: View Source

    2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str: View Source

    2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str: View Source

    2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str: View Source

    2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2589            if not callable(transform):
    2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2591                return ""
    2592
    2593            return transform(self, expression)
    2594
    2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2596            return str(expression)
    2597
    2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2601        else:
    2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2604
    2605        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str: View Source

    2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2613
    2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2615        if unique_keys is not None:
    2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2617        else:
    2618            unique_keys = ""
    2619
    2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2624
    2625        return self.func(
    2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2627            *expression.expressions,
    2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2629        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str: View Source

    2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2640        return self.func(
    2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2642        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2652        return self.func(
    2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2654            this,
    2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2656        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2662
    2663        if nested_schema:
    2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2665
    2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str: View Source

    2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str: View Source

    2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2683        return self.func(
    2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2685        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str: View Source

    2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2700        with_ = (
    2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2702            if expressions
    2703            else ""
    2704        )
    2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str: View Source

    2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2712
    2713        if query:
    2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2715        elif unnest:
    2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2717        elif field:
    2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2719        else:
    2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2721
    2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str: View Source

    2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2732
    2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2736
    2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2738        if this:
    2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2741
    2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str: View Source

    2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str: View Source

    2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str: View Source

    2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str: View Source

    2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str: View Source

    2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str: View Source

    2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str: View Source

    2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str: View Source

    2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2779
    2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2784
    2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str: View Source

    2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str: View Source

    2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2808    def and_sql(
    2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2810    ) -> str:
    2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2813    def or_sql(
    2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2815    ) -> str:
    2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2818    def xor_sql(
    2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2820    ) -> str:
    2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2823    def connector_sql(
    2824        self,
    2825        expression: exp.Connector,
    2826        op: str,
    2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2828    ) -> str:
    2829        if stack is not None:
    2830            if expression.expressions:
    2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2832            else:
    2833                stack.append(expression.right)
    2834                if expression.comments:
    2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2838            return op
    2839
    2840        stack = [expression]
    2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2842        ops = set()
    2843
    2844        while stack:
    2845            node = stack.pop()
    2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2848            else:
    2849                sql = self.sql(node)
    2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2852                else:
    2853                    sqls.append(sql)
    2854
    2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2856        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str: View Source

    2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str: View Source

    2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str: View Source

    2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str: View Source

    2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str: View Source

    2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str: View Source

    2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str: View Source

    2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str: View Source

    2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str: View Source

    2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str: View Source

    2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str: View Source

    2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str: View Source

    2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2924
    2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2927
    2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str: View Source

    2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2931        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str: View Source

    2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2935        if chain is not None:
    2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2937
    2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str: View Source

    2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str: View Source

    2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947
    2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2949        if dtype:
    2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2955
    2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2957        if default:
    2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2959
    2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2961        if comment:
    2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2963
    2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2966
    2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str: View Source

    2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2971            # Remove db from tables
    2972            expression = expression.transform(
    2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str: View Source

    2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2986
    2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2993        else:
    2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2995
    2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3004            return self.expressions(
    3005                expression,
    3006                key="actions",
    3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3008            )
    3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str: View Source

    3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str: View Source

    3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3021
    3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3023            case = exp.case()
    3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3027
    3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3029
    3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str: View Source

    3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str: View Source

    3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str: View Source

    3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str: View Source

    3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3047        return self.sql(
    3048            exp.Cast(
    3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3051            )
    3052        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str: View Source

    3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3056            return self.func(
    3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3058            )
    3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str: View Source

    3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3063
    3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3066
    3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3070
    3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3073                return self.sql(
    3074                    exp.cast(
    3075                        l / r,
    3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3077                    )
    3078                )
    3079
    3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str: View Source

    3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str: View Source

    3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str: View Source

    3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str: View Source

    3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str: View Source

    3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str: View Source

    3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str: View Source

    3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str: View Source

    3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str: View Source

    3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str: View Source

    3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str: View Source

    3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3117            return self.sql(
    3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3119            )
    3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str: View Source

    3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str: View Source

    3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str: View Source

    3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str: View Source

    3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str: View Source

    3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str: View Source

    3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str: View Source

    3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str: View Source

    3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str: View Source

    3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str: View Source

    3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str: View Source

    3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str: View Source

    3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str: View Source

    3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3162        this = expression.this
    3163        expr = expression.expression
    3164
    3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3166            this, expr = expr, this
    3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3170
    3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3172
    3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str: View Source

    3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str: View Source

    3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3187        args = []
    3188
    3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3191
    3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3193                for value in arg_value:
    3194                    args.append(value)
    3195            elif arg_value is not None:
    3196                args.append(arg_value)
    3197
    3198        if self.normalize_functions:
    3199            name = expression.sql_name()
    3200        else:
    3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3202
    3203        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str: View Source

    3205    def func(
    3206        self,
    3207        name: str,
    3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3209        prefix: str = "(",
    3210        suffix: str = ")",
    3211    ) -> str:
    3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str: View Source

    3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3223    def format_time(
    3224        self,
    3225        expression: exp.Expression,
    3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3229        return format_time(
    3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3233        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3235    def expressions(
    3236        self,
    3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3240        flat: bool = False,
    3241        indent: bool = True,
    3242        skip_first: bool = False,
    3243        skip_last: bool = False,
    3244        sep: str = ", ",
    3245        prefix: str = "",
    3246        dynamic: bool = False,
    3247        new_line: bool = False,
    3248    ) -> str:
    3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3250
    3251        if not expressions:
    3252            return ""
    3253
    3254        if flat:
    3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3256
    3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3258
    3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3262
    3263        result_sqls = []
    3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3266            if not sql:
    3267                continue
    3268
    3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3270
    3271            if self.pretty:
    3272                if self.leading_comma:
    3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3274                else:
    3275                    result_sqls.append(
    3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3277                    )
    3278            else:
    3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3280
    3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3282            if new_line:
    3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3284                result_sqls.append("")
    3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3286        else:
    3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3288        return (
    3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3290            if indent
    3291            else result_sql
    3292        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3297        if flat:
    3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3303        if not property_name:
    3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str: View Source

    3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str: View Source

    3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str: View Source

    3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3316        expressions = (
    3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3318        )
    3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str: View Source

    3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str: View Source

    3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str: View Source

    3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3334
    3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3343            else:
    3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3345        else:
    3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str: View Source

    3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3350        table = expression.this
    3351        table_alias = ""
    3352
    3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3357
    3358        this = self.sql(table)
    3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3362
    3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3365        )

def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str: View Source

    3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3370
    3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str: View Source

    3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3377
    3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3379        if not fmt:
    3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3382
    3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str: View Source

    3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str: View Source

    3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str: View Source

    3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str: View Source

    3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3402        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str: View Source

    3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3414
    3415        if having:
    3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3417
    3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str: View Source

    3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str: View Source

    3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3437        if key_block_size:
    3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3439
    3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3441        if using:
    3442            return f"USING {using}"
    3443
    3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3445        if parser:
    3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3447
    3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3449        if comment:
    3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3451
    3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3453        if visible is not None:
    3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3455
    3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3457        if engine_attr:
    3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3459
    3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3463
    3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3465        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str: View Source

    3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3487
    3488        case = exp.Case().when(
    3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3490            expression.args["true"],
    3491            copy=False,
    3492        )
    3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3494        if else_cond:
    3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3496
    3497        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str: View Source

    3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str: View Source

    3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str: View Source

    3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str: View Source

    3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str: View Source

    3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str: View Source

    3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str: View Source

    3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str: View Source

    3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3535        arg = expression.this
    3536        if not arg.type:
    3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3538
    3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3540
    3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3542            return self.sql(arg)
    3543
    3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str: View Source

    3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3548        this = expression.this
    3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3550            return self.sql(this)
    3551
    3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3555        this = expression.this
    3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3557            return self.sql(this)
    3558
    3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str: View Source

    3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3562        this = expression.this
    3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3564
    3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3566            return self.sql(
    3567                exp.cast(
    3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3570                )
    3571            )
    3572
    3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3574            return self.sql(this)
    3575
    3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str: View Source

    3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3579        return self.sql(
    3580            exp.func(
    3581                "DATEDIFF",
    3582                expression.this,
    3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3584                "day",
    3585            )
    3586        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str: View Source

    3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3591
    3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3595
    3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str: View Source

    3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3600
    3601        return self.func(
    3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3603        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str: View Source

    3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3611
    3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3613
    3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3617
    3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str: View Source

    3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str: View Source

    3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3625        expression.set(
    3626            "expressions",
    3627            [
    3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3630                else e
    3631                for e in expression.expressions
    3632            ],
    3633        )
    3634
    3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str: View Source

    3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3640
    3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str: View Source

    3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3646
    3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3648
    3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3651
    3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3654
    3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3657
    3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3660
    3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str: View Source

    3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3666        to = expression.this
    3667        value = expression.expression
    3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3671
    3672        if not to or not value:
    3673            return ""
    3674
    3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3678
    3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3681
    3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3685
    3686            style_value = style.name
    3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3688            if not converted_style:
    3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3690
    3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3692
    3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3701
    3702        if not transformed:
    3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3704
    3705        return self.sql(transformed)