1"""
   2## Expressions
   3
   4Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of `Expression`.
   5
   6This module contains the implementation of all supported `Expression` types. Additionally,
   7it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build
   8SQL expressions, such as `sqlglot.expressions.select`.
   9
  10----
  11"""
  12
  13from __future__ import annotations
  14
  15import datetime
  16import math
  17import numbers
  18import re
  19import typing as t
  20from collections import deque
  21from copy import deepcopy
  22from enum import auto
  23from functools import reduce
  24
  25from sqlglot._typing import E
  26from sqlglot.errors import ParseError
  27from sqlglot.helper import (
  28    AutoName,
  29    camel_to_snake_case,
  30    ensure_collection,
  31    ensure_list,
  32    seq_get,
  33    subclasses,
  34)
  35from sqlglot.tokens import Token
  36
  37if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  38    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  39
  40
  41class _Expression(type):
  42    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  43        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  44
  45        # When an Expression class is created, its key is automatically set to be
  46        # the lowercase version of the class' name.
  47        klass.key = clsname.lower()
  48
  49        # This is so that docstrings are not inherited in pdoc
  50        klass.__doc__ = klass.__doc__ or ""
  51
  52        return klass
  53
  54
  55SQLGLOT_META = "sqlglot.meta"
  56
  57
  58class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
  59    """
  60    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
  61    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
  62    is optional or not.
  63
  64    Attributes:
  65        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
  66            and representing expressions as strings.
  67        arg_types: determines what arguments (child nodes) are supported by an expression. It
  68            maps arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
  69        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  70        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
  71            uses to refer to it.
  72        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
  73            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  74        type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
  75            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
  76        meta: a dictionary that can be used to store useful metadata for a given expression.
  77
  78    Example:
  79        >>> class Foo(Expression):
  80        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
  81
  82        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
  83        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
  84
  85    Args:
  86        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  87    """
  88
  89    key = "expression"
  90    arg_types = {"this": True}
  91    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
  92
  93    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
  94        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
  95        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
  96        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
  97        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
  98        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
  99        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 100        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 101
 102        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
 103            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 104
 105    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
 106        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
 107
 108    @property
 109    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
 110        return frozenset(
 111            (k, tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in v) if type(v) is list else _norm_arg(v))
 112            for k, v in self.args.items()
 113            if not (v is None or v is False or (type(v) is list and not v))
 114        )
 115
 116    def __hash__(self) -> int:
 117        if self._hash is not None:
 118            return self._hash
 119
 120        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
 121
 122    @property
 123    def this(self):
 124        """
 125        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
 126        """
 127        return self.args.get("this")
 128
 129    @property
 130    def expression(self):
 131        """
 132        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
 133        """
 134        return self.args.get("expression")
 135
 136    @property
 137    def expressions(self):
 138        """
 139        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
 140        """
 141        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
 142
 143    def text(self, key) -> str:
 144        """
 145        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
 146        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
 147        """
 148        field = self.args.get(key)
 149        if isinstance(field, str):
 150            return field
 151        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
 152            return field.this
 153        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
 154            return field.name
 155        return ""
 156
 157    @property
 158    def is_string(self) -> bool:
 159        """
 160        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
 161        """
 162        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
 163
 164    @property
 165    def is_number(self) -> bool:
 166        """
 167        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
 168        """
 169        return isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]
 170
 171    @property
 172    def is_int(self) -> bool:
 173        """
 174        Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.
 175        """
 176        if self.is_number:
 177            try:
 178                int(self.name)
 179                return True
 180            except ValueError:
 181                pass
 182        return False
 183
 184    @property
 185    def is_star(self) -> bool:
 186        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
 187        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
 188
 189    @property
 190    def alias(self) -> str:
 191        """
 192        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
 193        """
 194        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
 195            return self.args["alias"].name
 196        return self.text("alias")
 197
 198    @property
 199    def alias_column_names(self) -> t.List[str]:
 200        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
 201        if not table_alias:
 202            return []
 203        return [c.name for c in table_alias.args.get("columns") or []]
 204
 205    @property
 206    def name(self) -> str:
 207        return self.text("this")
 208
 209    @property
 210    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 211        return self.alias or self.name
 212
 213    @property
 214    def output_name(self) -> str:
 215        """
 216        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
 217
 218        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
 219
 220        Example:
 221            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
 222            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
 223            'a'
 224            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
 225            'c'
 226            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
 227            ''
 228        """
 229        return ""
 230
 231    @property
 232    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
 233        return self._type
 234
 235    @type.setter
 236    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
 237        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
 238            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
 239        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
 240
 241    @property
 242    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
 243        if self._meta is None:
 244            self._meta = {}
 245        return self._meta
 246
 247    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
 248        copy = self.__class__(**deepcopy(self.args))
 249        if self.comments is not None:
 250            copy.comments = deepcopy(self.comments)
 251
 252        if self._type is not None:
 253            copy._type = self._type.copy()
 254
 255        if self._meta is not None:
 256            copy._meta = deepcopy(self._meta)
 257
 258        return copy
 259
 260    def copy(self):
 261        """
 262        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
 263        """
 264        new = deepcopy(self)
 265        new.parent = self.parent
 266        return new
 267
 268    def add_comments(self, comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]]) -> None:
 269        if self.comments is None:
 270            self.comments = []
 271        if comments:
 272            for comment in comments:
 273                _, *meta = comment.split(SQLGLOT_META)
 274                if meta:
 275                    for kv in "".join(meta).split(","):
 276                        k, *v = kv.split("=")
 277                        value = v[0].strip() if v else True
 278                        self.meta[k.strip()] = value
 279                self.comments.append(comment)
 280
 281    def append(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 282        """
 283        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
 284
 285        Args:
 286            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
 287            value (Any): value to append to the list
 288        """
 289        if not isinstance(self.args.get(arg_key), list):
 290            self.args[arg_key] = []
 291        self.args[arg_key].append(value)
 292        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 293
 294    def set(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 295        """
 296        Sets arg_key to value.
 297
 298        Args:
 299            arg_key: name of the expression arg.
 300            value: value to set the arg to.
 301        """
 302        if value is None:
 303            self.args.pop(arg_key, None)
 304            return
 305
 306        self.args[arg_key] = value
 307        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 308
 309    def _set_parent(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 310        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 311            value.parent = self
 312            value.arg_key = arg_key
 313        elif type(value) is list:
 314            for v in value:
 315                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 316                    v.parent = self
 317                    v.arg_key = arg_key
 318
 319    @property
 320    def depth(self) -> int:
 321        """
 322        Returns the depth of this tree.
 323        """
 324        if self.parent:
 325            return self.parent.depth + 1
 326        return 0
 327
 328    def iter_expressions(self) -> t.Iterator[t.Tuple[str, Expression]]:
 329        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
 330        for k, vs in self.args.items():
 331            if type(vs) is list:
 332                for v in vs:
 333                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 334                        yield k, v
 335            else:
 336                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 337                    yield k, vs
 338
 339    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Optional[E]:
 340        """
 341        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
 342        the specified types.
 343
 344        Args:
 345            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 346            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 347
 348        Returns:
 349            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
 350        """
 351        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
 352
 353    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
 354        """
 355        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
 356        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
 357
 358        Args:
 359            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 360            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 361
 362        Returns:
 363            The generator object.
 364        """
 365        for expression, *_ in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
 366            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
 367                yield expression
 368
 369    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> t.Optional[E]:
 370        """
 371        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
 372
 373        Args:
 374            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 375
 376        Returns:
 377            The parent node.
 378        """
 379        ancestor = self.parent
 380        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
 381            ancestor = ancestor.parent
 382        return t.cast(E, ancestor)
 383
 384    @property
 385    def parent_select(self) -> t.Optional[Select]:
 386        """
 387        Returns the parent select statement.
 388        """
 389        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
 390
 391    @property
 392    def same_parent(self) -> bool:
 393        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
 394        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
 395
 396    def root(self) -> Expression:
 397        """
 398        Returns the root expression of this tree.
 399        """
 400        expression = self
 401        while expression.parent:
 402            expression = expression.parent
 403        return expression
 404
 405    def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
 406        """
 407        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
 408
 409        Args:
 410            bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
 411                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
 412            prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if
 413                the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
 414
 415        Returns:
 416            the generator object.
 417        """
 418        if bfs:
 419            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
 420        else:
 421            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
 422
 423    def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
 424        """
 425        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 426        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
 427
 428        Returns:
 429            The generator object.
 430        """
 431        parent = parent or self.parent
 432        yield self, parent, key
 433        if prune and prune(self, parent, key):
 434            return
 435
 436        for k, v in self.iter_expressions():
 437            yield from v.dfs(self, k, prune)
 438
 439    def bfs(self, prune=None):
 440        """
 441        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 442        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
 443
 444        Returns:
 445            The generator object.
 446        """
 447        queue = deque([(self, self.parent, None)])
 448
 449        while queue:
 450            item, parent, key = queue.popleft()
 451
 452            yield item, parent, key
 453            if prune and prune(item, parent, key):
 454                continue
 455
 456            for k, v in item.iter_expressions():
 457                queue.append((v, item, k))
 458
 459    def unnest(self):
 460        """
 461        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
 462        """
 463        expression = self
 464        while type(expression) is Paren:
 465            expression = expression.this
 466        return expression
 467
 468    def unalias(self):
 469        """
 470        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
 471        """
 472        if isinstance(self, Alias):
 473            return self.this
 474        return self
 475
 476    def unnest_operands(self):
 477        """
 478        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
 479        """
 480        return tuple(arg.unnest() for _, arg in self.iter_expressions())
 481
 482    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
 483        """
 484        Returns a generator which yields child nodes who's parents are the same class.
 485
 486        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
 487        """
 488        for node, _, _ in self.dfs(prune=lambda n, p, *_: p and not type(n) is self.__class__):
 489            if not type(node) is self.__class__:
 490                yield node.unnest() if unnest else node
 491
 492    def __str__(self) -> str:
 493        return self.sql()
 494
 495    def __repr__(self) -> str:
 496        return self._to_s()
 497
 498    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
 499        """
 500        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
 501
 502        Args:
 503            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
 504            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
 505
 506        Returns:
 507            The SQL string.
 508        """
 509        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 510
 511        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().generate(self, **opts)
 512
 513    def _to_s(self, hide_missing: bool = True, level: int = 0) -> str:
 514        indent = "" if not level else "\n"
 515        indent += "".join(["  "] * level)
 516        left = f"({self.key.upper()} "
 517
 518        args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {
 519            k: ", ".join(
 520                v._to_s(hide_missing=hide_missing, level=level + 1)
 521                if hasattr(v, "_to_s")
 522                else str(v)
 523                for v in ensure_list(vs)
 524                if v is not None
 525            )
 526            for k, vs in self.args.items()
 527        }
 528        args["comments"] = self.comments
 529        args["type"] = self.type
 530        args = {k: v for k, v in args.items() if v or not hide_missing}
 531
 532        right = ", ".join(f"{k}: {v}" for k, v in args.items())
 533        right += ")"
 534
 535        return indent + left + right
 536
 537    def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
 538        """
 539        Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
 540        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
 541
 542        Args:
 543            fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
 544                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
 545                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
 546            copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
 547                modified in place.
 548
 549        Returns:
 550            The transformed tree.
 551        """
 552        node = self.copy() if copy else self
 553        new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
 554
 555        if new_node is None or not isinstance(new_node, Expression):
 556            return new_node
 557        if new_node is not node:
 558            new_node.parent = node.parent
 559            return new_node
 560
 561        replace_children(new_node, lambda child: child.transform(fun, *args, copy=False, **kwargs))
 562        return new_node
 563
 564    @t.overload
 565    def replace(self, expression: E) -> E:
 566        ...
 567
 568    @t.overload
 569    def replace(self, expression: None) -> None:
 570        ...
 571
 572    def replace(self, expression):
 573        """
 574        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
 575
 576        For example::
 577
 578            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
 579            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(Column(this="y"))
 580            (COLUMN this: y)
 581            >>> tree.sql()
 582            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
 583
 584        Args:
 585            expression: new node
 586
 587        Returns:
 588            The new expression or expressions.
 589        """
 590        if not self.parent:
 591            return expression
 592
 593        parent = self.parent
 594        self.parent = None
 595
 596        replace_children(parent, lambda child: expression if child is self else child)
 597        return expression
 598
 599    def pop(self: E) -> E:
 600        """
 601        Remove this expression from its AST.
 602
 603        Returns:
 604            The popped expression.
 605        """
 606        self.replace(None)
 607        return self
 608
 609    def assert_is(self, type_: t.Type[E]) -> E:
 610        """
 611        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
 612
 613        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
 614        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
 615
 616        Examples:
 617            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
 618
 619            >>> import sqlglot
 620            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
 621            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
 622        """
 623        assert isinstance(self, type_)
 624        return self
 625
 626    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
 627        """
 628        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
 629
 630        Args:
 631            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
 632                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
 633
 634        Returns:
 635            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
 636        """
 637        errors: t.List[str] = []
 638
 639        for k in self.args:
 640            if k not in self.arg_types:
 641                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
 642        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
 643            v = self.args.get(k)
 644            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
 645                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
 646
 647        if (
 648            args
 649            and isinstance(self, Func)
 650            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
 651            and not self.is_var_len_args
 652        ):
 653            errors.append(
 654                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
 655                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
 656            )
 657
 658        return errors
 659
 660    def dump(self):
 661        """
 662        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
 663        """
 664        from sqlglot.serde import dump
 665
 666        return dump(self)
 667
 668    @classmethod
 669    def load(cls, obj):
 670        """
 671        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
 672        """
 673        from sqlglot.serde import load
 674
 675        return load(obj)
 676
 677    def and_(
 678        self,
 679        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 680        dialect: DialectType = None,
 681        copy: bool = True,
 682        **opts,
 683    ) -> Condition:
 684        """
 685        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 686
 687        Example:
 688            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
 689            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
 690
 691        Args:
 692            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 693                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 694            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 695            copy: whether or not to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 696            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 697
 698        Returns:
 699            The new And condition.
 700        """
 701        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 702
 703    def or_(
 704        self,
 705        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 706        dialect: DialectType = None,
 707        copy: bool = True,
 708        **opts,
 709    ) -> Condition:
 710        """
 711        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 712
 713        Example:
 714            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
 715            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
 716
 717        Args:
 718            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 719                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 720            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 721            copy: whether or not to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 722            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 723
 724        Returns:
 725            The new Or condition.
 726        """
 727        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 728
 729    def not_(self, copy: bool = True):
 730        """
 731        Wrap this condition with NOT.
 732
 733        Example:
 734            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
 735            'NOT x = 1'
 736
 737        Args:
 738            copy: whether or not to copy this object.
 739
 740        Returns:
 741            The new Not instance.
 742        """
 743        return not_(self, copy=copy)
 744
 745    def as_(
 746        self,
 747        alias: str | Identifier,
 748        quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 749        dialect: DialectType = None,
 750        copy: bool = True,
 751        **opts,
 752    ) -> Alias:
 753        return alias_(self, alias, quoted=quoted, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 754
 755    def _binop(self, klass: t.Type[E], other: t.Any, reverse: bool = False) -> E:
 756        this = self.copy()
 757        other = convert(other, copy=True)
 758        if not isinstance(this, klass) and not isinstance(other, klass):
 759            this = _wrap(this, Binary)
 760            other = _wrap(other, Binary)
 761        if reverse:
 762            return klass(this=other, expression=this)
 763        return klass(this=this, expression=other)
 764
 765    def __getitem__(self, other: ExpOrStr | t.Tuple[ExpOrStr]) -> Bracket:
 766        return Bracket(
 767            this=self.copy(), expressions=[convert(e, copy=True) for e in ensure_list(other)]
 768        )
 769
 770    def __iter__(self) -> t.Iterator:
 771        if "expressions" in self.arg_types:
 772            return iter(self.args.get("expressions") or [])
 773        # We define this because __getitem__ converts Expression into an iterable, which is
 774        # problematic because one can hit infinite loops if they do "for x in some_expr: ..."
 775        # See: https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/
 776        raise TypeError(f"'{self.__class__.__name__}' object is not iterable")
 777
 778    def isin(
 779        self,
 780        *expressions: t.Any,
 781        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
 782        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
 783        copy: bool = True,
 784        **opts,
 785    ) -> In:
 786        return In(
 787            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 788            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
 789            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
 790            unnest=Unnest(
 791                expressions=[
 792                    maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts) for e in ensure_list(unnest)
 793                ]
 794            )
 795            if unnest
 796            else None,
 797        )
 798
 799    def between(self, low: t.Any, high: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Between:
 800        return Between(
 801            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 802            low=convert(low, copy=copy, **opts),
 803            high=convert(high, copy=copy, **opts),
 804        )
 805
 806    def is_(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Is:
 807        return self._binop(Is, other)
 808
 809    def like(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Like:
 810        return self._binop(Like, other)
 811
 812    def ilike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> ILike:
 813        return self._binop(ILike, other)
 814
 815    def eq(self, other: t.Any) -> EQ:
 816        return self._binop(EQ, other)
 817
 818    def neq(self, other: t.Any) -> NEQ:
 819        return self._binop(NEQ, other)
 820
 821    def rlike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> RegexpLike:
 822        return self._binop(RegexpLike, other)
 823
 824    def __lt__(self, other: t.Any) -> LT:
 825        return self._binop(LT, other)
 826
 827    def __le__(self, other: t.Any) -> LTE:
 828        return self._binop(LTE, other)
 829
 830    def __gt__(self, other: t.Any) -> GT:
 831        return self._binop(GT, other)
 832
 833    def __ge__(self, other: t.Any) -> GTE:
 834        return self._binop(GTE, other)
 835
 836    def __add__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 837        return self._binop(Add, other)
 838
 839    def __radd__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 840        return self._binop(Add, other, reverse=True)
 841
 842    def __sub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 843        return self._binop(Sub, other)
 844
 845    def __rsub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 846        return self._binop(Sub, other, reverse=True)
 847
 848    def __mul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 849        return self._binop(Mul, other)
 850
 851    def __rmul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 852        return self._binop(Mul, other, reverse=True)
 853
 854    def __truediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 855        return self._binop(Div, other)
 856
 857    def __rtruediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 858        return self._binop(Div, other, reverse=True)
 859
 860    def __floordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 861        return self._binop(IntDiv, other)
 862
 863    def __rfloordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 864        return self._binop(IntDiv, other, reverse=True)
 865
 866    def __mod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 867        return self._binop(Mod, other)
 868
 869    def __rmod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 870        return self._binop(Mod, other, reverse=True)
 871
 872    def __pow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 873        return self._binop(Pow, other)
 874
 875    def __rpow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 876        return self._binop(Pow, other, reverse=True)
 877
 878    def __and__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 879        return self._binop(And, other)
 880
 881    def __rand__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 882        return self._binop(And, other, reverse=True)
 883
 884    def __or__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 885        return self._binop(Or, other)
 886
 887    def __ror__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 888        return self._binop(Or, other, reverse=True)
 889
 890    def __neg__(self) -> Neg:
 891        return Neg(this=_wrap(self.copy(), Binary))
 892
 893    def __invert__(self) -> Not:
 894        return not_(self.copy())
 895
 896
 897IntoType = t.Union[
 898    str,
 899    t.Type[Expression],
 900    t.Collection[t.Union[str, t.Type[Expression]]],
 901]
 902ExpOrStr = t.Union[str, Expression]
 903
 904
 905class Condition(Expression):
 906    """Logical conditions like x AND y, or simply x"""
 907
 908
 909class Predicate(Condition):
 910    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""
 911
 912
 913class DerivedTable(Expression):
 914    @property
 915    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
 916        return self.this.selects if isinstance(self.this, Subqueryable) else []
 917
 918    @property
 919    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
 920        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
 921
 922
 923class Unionable(Expression):
 924    def union(
 925        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 926    ) -> Unionable:
 927        """
 928        Builds a UNION expression.
 929
 930        Example:
 931            >>> import sqlglot
 932            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 933            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
 934
 935        Args:
 936            expression: the SQL code string.
 937                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 938            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 939            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 940            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 941
 942        Returns:
 943            The new Union expression.
 944        """
 945        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 946
 947    def intersect(
 948        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 949    ) -> Unionable:
 950        """
 951        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
 952
 953        Example:
 954            >>> import sqlglot
 955            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 956            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
 957
 958        Args:
 959            expression: the SQL code string.
 960                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 961            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 962            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 963            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 964
 965        Returns:
 966            The new Intersect expression.
 967        """
 968        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 969
 970    def except_(
 971        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 972    ) -> Unionable:
 973        """
 974        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
 975
 976        Example:
 977            >>> import sqlglot
 978            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 979            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
 980
 981        Args:
 982            expression: the SQL code string.
 983                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 984            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 985            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 986            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 987
 988        Returns:
 989            The new Except expression.
 990        """
 991        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 992
 993
 994class UDTF(DerivedTable, Unionable):
 995    @property
 996    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
 997        alias = self.args.get("alias")
 998        return alias.columns if alias else []
 999
1000
1001class Cache(Expression):
1002    arg_types = {
1003        "with": False,
1004        "this": True,
1005        "lazy": False,
1006        "options": False,
1007        "expression": False,
1008    }
1009
1010
1011class Uncache(Expression):
1012    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
1013
1014
1015class DDL(Expression):
1016    @property
1017    def ctes(self):
1018        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1019        if not with_:
1020            return []
1021        return with_.expressions
1022
1023    @property
1024    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1025        if isinstance(self.expression, Subqueryable):
1026            return self.expression.named_selects
1027        return []
1028
1029    @property
1030    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1031        if isinstance(self.expression, Subqueryable):
1032            return self.expression.selects
1033        return []
1034
1035
1036class Create(DDL):
1037    arg_types = {
1038        "with": False,
1039        "this": True,
1040        "kind": True,
1041        "expression": False,
1042        "exists": False,
1043        "properties": False,
1044        "replace": False,
1045        "unique": False,
1046        "indexes": False,
1047        "no_schema_binding": False,
1048        "begin": False,
1049        "end": False,
1050        "clone": False,
1051    }
1052
1053
1054# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-clone
1055# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_clone_statement
1056# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_copy
1057class Clone(Expression):
1058    arg_types = {
1059        "this": True,
1060        "when": False,
1061        "kind": False,
1062        "shallow": False,
1063        "expression": False,
1064        "copy": False,
1065    }
1066
1067
1068class Describe(Expression):
1069    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False, "expressions": False}
1070
1071
1072class Kill(Expression):
1073    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
1074
1075
1076class Pragma(Expression):
1077    pass
1078
1079
1080class Set(Expression):
1081    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "unset": False, "tag": False}
1082
1083
1084class SetItem(Expression):
1085    arg_types = {
1086        "this": False,
1087        "expressions": False,
1088        "kind": False,
1089        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
1090        "global": False,
1091    }
1092
1093
1094class Show(Expression):
1095    arg_types = {
1096        "this": True,
1097        "target": False,
1098        "offset": False,
1099        "limit": False,
1100        "like": False,
1101        "where": False,
1102        "db": False,
1103        "scope": False,
1104        "scope_kind": False,
1105        "full": False,
1106        "mutex": False,
1107        "query": False,
1108        "channel": False,
1109        "global": False,
1110        "log": False,
1111        "position": False,
1112        "types": False,
1113    }
1114
1115
1116class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
1117    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
1118
1119
1120class CharacterSet(Expression):
1121    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
1122
1123
1124class With(Expression):
1125    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
1126
1127    @property
1128    def recursive(self) -> bool:
1129        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
1130
1131
1132class WithinGroup(Expression):
1133    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1134
1135
1136class CTE(DerivedTable):
1137    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": True}
1138
1139
1140class TableAlias(Expression):
1141    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
1142
1143    @property
1144    def columns(self):
1145        return self.args.get("columns") or []
1146
1147
1148class BitString(Condition):
1149    pass
1150
1151
1152class HexString(Condition):
1153    pass
1154
1155
1156class ByteString(Condition):
1157    pass
1158
1159
1160class RawString(Condition):
1161    pass
1162
1163
1164class Column(Condition):
1165    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
1166
1167    @property
1168    def table(self) -> str:
1169        return self.text("table")
1170
1171    @property
1172    def db(self) -> str:
1173        return self.text("db")
1174
1175    @property
1176    def catalog(self) -> str:
1177        return self.text("catalog")
1178
1179    @property
1180    def output_name(self) -> str:
1181        return self.name
1182
1183    @property
1184    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
1185        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
1186        return [
1187            t.cast(Identifier, self.args[part])
1188            for part in ("catalog", "db", "table", "this")
1189            if self.args.get(part)
1190        ]
1191
1192    def to_dot(self) -> Dot | Identifier:
1193        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
1194        parts = self.parts
1195        parent = self.parent
1196
1197        while parent:
1198            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
1199                parts.append(parent.expression)
1200            parent = parent.parent
1201
1202        return Dot.build(deepcopy(parts)) if len(parts) > 1 else parts[0]
1203
1204
1205class ColumnPosition(Expression):
1206    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
1207
1208
1209class ColumnDef(Expression):
1210    arg_types = {
1211        "this": True,
1212        "kind": False,
1213        "constraints": False,
1214        "exists": False,
1215        "position": False,
1216    }
1217
1218    @property
1219    def constraints(self) -> t.List[ColumnConstraint]:
1220        return self.args.get("constraints") or []
1221
1222
1223class AlterColumn(Expression):
1224    arg_types = {
1225        "this": True,
1226        "dtype": False,
1227        "collate": False,
1228        "using": False,
1229        "default": False,
1230        "drop": False,
1231    }
1232
1233
1234class RenameTable(Expression):
1235    pass
1236
1237
1238class Comment(Expression):
1239    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True, "exists": False}
1240
1241
1242class Comprehension(Expression):
1243    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "iterator": True, "condition": False}
1244
1245
1246# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1247class MergeTreeTTLAction(Expression):
1248    arg_types = {
1249        "this": True,
1250        "delete": False,
1251        "recompress": False,
1252        "to_disk": False,
1253        "to_volume": False,
1254    }
1255
1256
1257# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1258class MergeTreeTTL(Expression):
1259    arg_types = {
1260        "expressions": True,
1261        "where": False,
1262        "group": False,
1263        "aggregates": False,
1264    }
1265
1266
1267# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1268class IndexConstraintOption(Expression):
1269    arg_types = {
1270        "key_block_size": False,
1271        "using": False,
1272        "parser": False,
1273        "comment": False,
1274        "visible": False,
1275        "engine_attr": False,
1276        "secondary_engine_attr": False,
1277    }
1278
1279
1280class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
1281    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
1282
1283    @property
1284    def kind(self) -> ColumnConstraintKind:
1285        return self.args["kind"]
1286
1287
1288class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
1289    pass
1290
1291
1292class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1293    pass
1294
1295
1296class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1297    arg_types = {"not_": True}
1298
1299
1300class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1301    arg_types = {"this": True}
1302
1303
1304class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1305    pass
1306
1307
1308class ClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1309    pass
1310
1311
1312class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1313    pass
1314
1315
1316class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1317    pass
1318
1319
1320class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1321    pass
1322
1323
1324class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1325    arg_types = {"this": True}
1326
1327
1328class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1329    pass
1330
1331
1332class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1333    pass
1334
1335
1336class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1337    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1338    arg_types = {
1339        "this": False,
1340        "expression": False,
1341        "on_null": False,
1342        "start": False,
1343        "increment": False,
1344        "minvalue": False,
1345        "maxvalue": False,
1346        "cycle": False,
1347    }
1348
1349
1350# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1351class IndexColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1352    arg_types = {
1353        "this": False,
1354        "schema": True,
1355        "kind": False,
1356        "index_type": False,
1357        "options": False,
1358    }
1359
1360
1361class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1362    pass
1363
1364
1365class NonClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1366    pass
1367
1368
1369class NotForReplicationColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1370    arg_types = {}
1371
1372
1373class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1374    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
1375
1376
1377# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/timestamp-initialization.html
1378class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1379    pass
1380
1381
1382class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1383    arg_types = {"desc": False}
1384
1385
1386class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1387    pass
1388
1389
1390class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1391    arg_types = {"this": False, "index_type": False}
1392
1393
1394class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1395    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1396
1397
1398class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1399    pass
1400
1401
1402# computed column expression
1403# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-table-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
1404class ComputedColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1405    arg_types = {"this": True, "persisted": False, "not_null": False}
1406
1407
1408class Constraint(Expression):
1409    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1410
1411
1412class Delete(Expression):
1413    arg_types = {
1414        "with": False,
1415        "this": False,
1416        "using": False,
1417        "where": False,
1418        "returning": False,
1419        "limit": False,
1420        "tables": False,  # Multiple-Table Syntax (MySQL)
1421    }
1422
1423    def delete(
1424        self,
1425        table: ExpOrStr,
1426        dialect: DialectType = None,
1427        copy: bool = True,
1428        **opts,
1429    ) -> Delete:
1430        """
1431        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1432
1433        Example:
1434            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1435            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1436
1437        Args:
1438            table: the table from which to delete.
1439            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1440            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1441            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1442
1443        Returns:
1444            Delete: the modified expression.
1445        """
1446        return _apply_builder(
1447            expression=table,
1448            instance=self,
1449            arg="this",
1450            dialect=dialect,
1451            into=Table,
1452            copy=copy,
1453            **opts,
1454        )
1455
1456    def where(
1457        self,
1458        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1459        append: bool = True,
1460        dialect: DialectType = None,
1461        copy: bool = True,
1462        **opts,
1463    ) -> Delete:
1464        """
1465        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1466
1467        Example:
1468            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1469            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1470
1471        Args:
1472            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1473                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1474                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1475            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1476                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1477            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1478            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1479            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1480
1481        Returns:
1482            Delete: the modified expression.
1483        """
1484        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1485            *expressions,
1486            instance=self,
1487            arg="where",
1488            append=append,
1489            into=Where,
1490            dialect=dialect,
1491            copy=copy,
1492            **opts,
1493        )
1494
1495    def returning(
1496        self,
1497        expression: ExpOrStr,
1498        dialect: DialectType = None,
1499        copy: bool = True,
1500        **opts,
1501    ) -> Delete:
1502        """
1503        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1504
1505        Example:
1506            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1507            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1508
1509        Args:
1510            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1511                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1512            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1513            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1514            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1515
1516        Returns:
1517            Delete: the modified expression.
1518        """
1519        return _apply_builder(
1520            expression=expression,
1521            instance=self,
1522            arg="returning",
1523            prefix="RETURNING",
1524            dialect=dialect,
1525            copy=copy,
1526            into=Returning,
1527            **opts,
1528        )
1529
1530
1531class Drop(Expression):
1532    arg_types = {
1533        "this": False,
1534        "kind": False,
1535        "exists": False,
1536        "temporary": False,
1537        "materialized": False,
1538        "cascade": False,
1539        "constraints": False,
1540        "purge": False,
1541    }
1542
1543
1544class Filter(Expression):
1545    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1546
1547
1548class Check(Expression):
1549    pass
1550
1551
1552# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/connect-by
1553class Connect(Expression):
1554    arg_types = {"start": False, "connect": True}
1555
1556
1557class Prior(Expression):
1558    pass
1559
1560
1561class Directory(Expression):
1562    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
1563    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
1564
1565
1566class ForeignKey(Expression):
1567    arg_types = {
1568        "expressions": True,
1569        "reference": False,
1570        "delete": False,
1571        "update": False,
1572    }
1573
1574
1575class ColumnPrefix(Expression):
1576    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1577
1578
1579class PrimaryKey(Expression):
1580    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
1581
1582
1583# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/sql-selectinto.html
1584# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_SELECT_INTO.html#r_SELECT_INTO-examples
1585class Into(Expression):
1586    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
1587
1588
1589class From(Expression):
1590    @property
1591    def name(self) -> str:
1592        return self.this.name
1593
1594    @property
1595    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
1596        return self.this.alias_or_name
1597
1598
1599class Having(Expression):
1600    pass
1601
1602
1603class Hint(Expression):
1604    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1605
1606
1607class JoinHint(Expression):
1608    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1609
1610
1611class Identifier(Expression):
1612    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False, "global": False, "temporary": False}
1613
1614    @property
1615    def quoted(self) -> bool:
1616        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
1617
1618    @property
1619    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1620        return (self.this, self.quoted)
1621
1622    @property
1623    def output_name(self) -> str:
1624        return self.name
1625
1626
1627# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes-opclass.html
1628class Opclass(Expression):
1629    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1630
1631
1632class Index(Expression):
1633    arg_types = {
1634        "this": False,
1635        "table": False,
1636        "using": False,
1637        "where": False,
1638        "columns": False,
1639        "unique": False,
1640        "primary": False,
1641        "amp": False,  # teradata
1642        "partition_by": False,  # teradata
1643        "where": False,  # postgres partial indexes
1644    }
1645
1646
1647class Insert(DDL):
1648    arg_types = {
1649        "with": False,
1650        "this": True,
1651        "expression": False,
1652        "conflict": False,
1653        "returning": False,
1654        "overwrite": False,
1655        "exists": False,
1656        "partition": False,
1657        "alternative": False,
1658        "where": False,
1659        "ignore": False,
1660        "by_name": False,
1661    }
1662
1663    def with_(
1664        self,
1665        alias: ExpOrStr,
1666        as_: ExpOrStr,
1667        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
1668        append: bool = True,
1669        dialect: DialectType = None,
1670        copy: bool = True,
1671        **opts,
1672    ) -> Insert:
1673        """
1674        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1675
1676        Example:
1677            >>> insert("SELECT x FROM cte", "t").with_("cte", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").sql()
1678            'WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) INSERT INTO t SELECT x FROM cte'
1679
1680        Args:
1681            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1682                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1683            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1684                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1685            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1686            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1687                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1688            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1689            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1690            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1691
1692        Returns:
1693            The modified expression.
1694        """
1695        return _apply_cte_builder(
1696            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
1697        )
1698
1699
1700class OnConflict(Expression):
1701    arg_types = {
1702        "duplicate": False,
1703        "expressions": False,
1704        "nothing": False,
1705        "key": False,
1706        "constraint": False,
1707    }
1708
1709
1710class Returning(Expression):
1711    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "into": False}
1712
1713
1714# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/charset-introducer.html
1715class Introducer(Expression):
1716    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1717
1718
1719# national char, like n'utf8'
1720class National(Expression):
1721    pass
1722
1723
1724class LoadData(Expression):
1725    arg_types = {
1726        "this": True,
1727        "local": False,
1728        "overwrite": False,
1729        "inpath": True,
1730        "partition": False,
1731        "input_format": False,
1732        "serde": False,
1733    }
1734
1735
1736class Partition(Expression):
1737    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1738
1739
1740class Fetch(Expression):
1741    arg_types = {
1742        "direction": False,
1743        "count": False,
1744        "percent": False,
1745        "with_ties": False,
1746    }
1747
1748
1749class Group(Expression):
1750    arg_types = {
1751        "expressions": False,
1752        "grouping_sets": False,
1753        "cube": False,
1754        "rollup": False,
1755        "totals": False,
1756        "all": False,
1757    }
1758
1759
1760class Lambda(Expression):
1761    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1762
1763
1764class Limit(Expression):
1765    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "offset": False}
1766
1767
1768class Literal(Condition):
1769    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
1770
1771    @property
1772    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1773        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
1774
1775    @classmethod
1776    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
1777        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
1778
1779    @classmethod
1780    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
1781        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
1782
1783    @property
1784    def output_name(self) -> str:
1785        return self.name
1786
1787
1788class Join(Expression):
1789    arg_types = {
1790        "this": True,
1791        "on": False,
1792        "side": False,
1793        "kind": False,
1794        "using": False,
1795        "method": False,
1796        "global": False,
1797        "hint": False,
1798    }
1799
1800    @property
1801    def method(self) -> str:
1802        return self.text("method").upper()
1803
1804    @property
1805    def kind(self) -> str:
1806        return self.text("kind").upper()
1807
1808    @property
1809    def side(self) -> str:
1810        return self.text("side").upper()
1811
1812    @property
1813    def hint(self) -> str:
1814        return self.text("hint").upper()
1815
1816    @property
1817    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
1818        return self.this.alias_or_name
1819
1820    def on(
1821        self,
1822        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1823        append: bool = True,
1824        dialect: DialectType = None,
1825        copy: bool = True,
1826        **opts,
1827    ) -> Join:
1828        """
1829        Append to or set the ON expressions.
1830
1831        Example:
1832            >>> import sqlglot
1833            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
1834            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
1835
1836        Args:
1837            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1838                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1839                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1840            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1841                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1842            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1843            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1844            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1845
1846        Returns:
1847            The modified Join expression.
1848        """
1849        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
1850            *expressions,
1851            instance=self,
1852            arg="on",
1853            append=append,
1854            dialect=dialect,
1855            copy=copy,
1856            **opts,
1857        )
1858
1859        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1860            join.set("kind", None)
1861
1862        return join
1863
1864    def using(
1865        self,
1866        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1867        append: bool = True,
1868        dialect: DialectType = None,
1869        copy: bool = True,
1870        **opts,
1871    ) -> Join:
1872        """
1873        Append to or set the USING expressions.
1874
1875        Example:
1876            >>> import sqlglot
1877            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
1878            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
1879
1880        Args:
1881            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1882                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1883            append: if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
1884                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1885            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1886            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1887            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1888
1889        Returns:
1890            The modified Join expression.
1891        """
1892        join = _apply_list_builder(
1893            *expressions,
1894            instance=self,
1895            arg="using",
1896            append=append,
1897            dialect=dialect,
1898            copy=copy,
1899            **opts,
1900        )
1901
1902        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1903            join.set("kind", None)
1904
1905        return join
1906
1907
1908class Lateral(UDTF):
1909    arg_types = {"this": True, "view": False, "outer": False, "alias": False}
1910
1911
1912class MatchRecognize(Expression):
1913    arg_types = {
1914        "partition_by": False,
1915        "order": False,
1916        "measures": False,
1917        "rows": False,
1918        "after": False,
1919        "pattern": False,
1920        "define": False,
1921        "alias": False,
1922    }
1923
1924
1925# Clickhouse FROM FINAL modifier
1926# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/from/#final-modifier
1927class Final(Expression):
1928    pass
1929
1930
1931class Offset(Expression):
1932    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
1933
1934
1935class Order(Expression):
1936    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": True}
1937
1938
1939# hive specific sorts
1940# https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/Hive/LanguageManual+SortBy
1941class Cluster(Order):
1942    pass
1943
1944
1945class Distribute(Order):
1946    pass
1947
1948
1949class Sort(Order):
1950    pass
1951
1952
1953class Ordered(Expression):
1954    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": False, "nulls_first": True}
1955
1956
1957class Property(Expression):
1958    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
1959
1960
1961class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
1962    arg_types = {"this": True}
1963
1964
1965class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
1966    arg_types = {"this": True}
1967
1968
1969class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
1970    arg_types = {"autotemp": False, "always": False, "default": True, "manual": True, "never": True}
1971
1972
1973class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
1974    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
1975
1976
1977class ChecksumProperty(Property):
1978    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
1979
1980
1981class CollateProperty(Property):
1982    arg_types = {"this": True}
1983
1984
1985class CopyGrantsProperty(Property):
1986    arg_types = {}
1987
1988
1989class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
1990    arg_types = {
1991        "size": False,
1992        "units": False,
1993        "minimum": False,
1994        "maximum": False,
1995        "default": False,
1996    }
1997
1998
1999class DefinerProperty(Property):
2000    arg_types = {"this": True}
2001
2002
2003class DistKeyProperty(Property):
2004    arg_types = {"this": True}
2005
2006
2007class DistStyleProperty(Property):
2008    arg_types = {"this": True}
2009
2010
2011class EngineProperty(Property):
2012    arg_types = {"this": True}
2013
2014
2015class HeapProperty(Property):
2016    arg_types = {}
2017
2018
2019class ToTableProperty(Property):
2020    arg_types = {"this": True}
2021
2022
2023class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
2024    arg_types = {"this": True}
2025
2026
2027class ExternalProperty(Property):
2028    arg_types = {"this": False}
2029
2030
2031class FallbackProperty(Property):
2032    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
2033
2034
2035class FileFormatProperty(Property):
2036    arg_types = {"this": True}
2037
2038
2039class FreespaceProperty(Property):
2040    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
2041
2042
2043class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
2044    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
2045
2046
2047class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
2048    arg_types = {
2049        "no": True,
2050        "concurrent": True,
2051        "for_all": True,
2052        "for_insert": True,
2053        "for_none": True,
2054    }
2055
2056
2057class JournalProperty(Property):
2058    arg_types = {
2059        "no": False,
2060        "dual": False,
2061        "before": False,
2062        "local": False,
2063        "after": False,
2064    }
2065
2066
2067class LanguageProperty(Property):
2068    arg_types = {"this": True}
2069
2070
2071# spark ddl
2072class ClusteredByProperty(Property):
2073    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "sorted_by": False, "buckets": True}
2074
2075
2076class DictProperty(Property):
2077    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "settings": False}
2078
2079
2080class DictSubProperty(Property):
2081    pass
2082
2083
2084class DictRange(Property):
2085    arg_types = {"this": True, "min": True, "max": True}
2086
2087
2088# Clickhouse CREATE ... ON CLUSTER modifier
2089# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/distributed-ddl
2090class OnCluster(Property):
2091    arg_types = {"this": True}
2092
2093
2094class LikeProperty(Property):
2095    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
2096
2097
2098class LocationProperty(Property):
2099    arg_types = {"this": True}
2100
2101
2102class LockingProperty(Property):
2103    arg_types = {
2104        "this": False,
2105        "kind": True,
2106        "for_or_in": True,
2107        "lock_type": True,
2108        "override": False,
2109    }
2110
2111
2112class LogProperty(Property):
2113    arg_types = {"no": True}
2114
2115
2116class MaterializedProperty(Property):
2117    arg_types = {"this": False}
2118
2119
2120class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
2121    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
2122
2123
2124class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
2125    arg_types = {}
2126
2127
2128class OnProperty(Property):
2129    arg_types = {"this": True}
2130
2131
2132class OnCommitProperty(Property):
2133    arg_types = {"delete": False}
2134
2135
2136class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
2137    arg_types = {"this": True}
2138
2139
2140class ReturnsProperty(Property):
2141    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_table": False, "table": False}
2142
2143
2144class RowFormatProperty(Property):
2145    arg_types = {"this": True}
2146
2147
2148class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
2149    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
2150    arg_types = {
2151        "fields": False,
2152        "escaped": False,
2153        "collection_items": False,
2154        "map_keys": False,
2155        "lines": False,
2156        "null": False,
2157        "serde": False,
2158    }
2159
2160
2161class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
2162    arg_types = {"this": True, "serde_properties": False}
2163
2164
2165# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.2/sql-ref-syntax-qry-select-transform.html
2166class QueryTransform(Expression):
2167    arg_types = {
2168        "expressions": True,
2169        "command_script": True,
2170        "schema": False,
2171        "row_format_before": False,
2172        "record_writer": False,
2173        "row_format_after": False,
2174        "record_reader": False,
2175    }
2176
2177
2178class SampleProperty(Property):
2179    arg_types = {"this": True}
2180
2181
2182class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
2183    arg_types = {"this": True}
2184
2185
2186class SerdeProperties(Property):
2187    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2188
2189
2190class SetProperty(Property):
2191    arg_types = {"multi": True}
2192
2193
2194class SettingsProperty(Property):
2195    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2196
2197
2198class SortKeyProperty(Property):
2199    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
2200
2201
2202class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
2203    arg_types = {"definer": True}
2204
2205
2206class StabilityProperty(Property):
2207    arg_types = {"this": True}
2208
2209
2210class TemporaryProperty(Property):
2211    arg_types = {}
2212
2213
2214class TransientProperty(Property):
2215    arg_types = {"this": False}
2216
2217
2218class VolatileProperty(Property):
2219    arg_types = {"this": False}
2220
2221
2222class WithDataProperty(Property):
2223    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
2224
2225
2226class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
2227    arg_types = {"this": True}
2228
2229
2230class Properties(Expression):
2231    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2232
2233    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
2234        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
2235        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
2236        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
2237        "CLUSTERED_BY": ClusteredByProperty,
2238        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
2239        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
2240        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
2241        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
2242        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
2243        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
2244        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
2245        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
2246        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
2247        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
2248        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
2249        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
2250        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
2251        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
2252    }
2253
2254    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
2255
2256    # CREATE property locations
2257    # Form: schema specified
2258    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2259    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2260    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
2261    #     with ([POST_WITH])
2262    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
2263    #
2264    # Form: alias selection
2265    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2266    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2267    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
2268    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
2269    class Location(AutoName):
2270        POST_CREATE = auto()
2271        POST_NAME = auto()
2272        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
2273        POST_WITH = auto()
2274        POST_ALIAS = auto()
2275        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
2276        POST_INDEX = auto()
2277        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
2278
2279    @classmethod
2280    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict: t.Dict) -> Properties:
2281        expressions = []
2282        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
2283            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
2284            if property_cls:
2285                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
2286            else:
2287                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
2288
2289        return cls(expressions=expressions)
2290
2291
2292class Qualify(Expression):
2293    pass
2294
2295
2296# https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/ias?topic=procedures-return-statement-in-sql
2297class Return(Expression):
2298    pass
2299
2300
2301class Reference(Expression):
2302    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
2303
2304
2305class Tuple(Expression):
2306    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
2307
2308    def isin(
2309        self,
2310        *expressions: t.Any,
2311        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
2312        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
2313        copy: bool = True,
2314        **opts,
2315    ) -> In:
2316        return In(
2317            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
2318            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
2319            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
2320            unnest=Unnest(
2321                expressions=[
2322                    maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts) for e in ensure_list(unnest)
2323                ]
2324            )
2325            if unnest
2326            else None,
2327        )
2328
2329
2330class Subqueryable(Unionable):
2331    def subquery(self, alias: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None, copy: bool = True) -> Subquery:
2332        """
2333        Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.
2334
2335        Example:
2336            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
2337            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
2338            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
2339
2340        Args:
2341            alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
2342            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2343
2344        Returns:
2345            Alias: the subquery
2346        """
2347        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
2348        if not isinstance(alias, Expression):
2349            alias = TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None
2350
2351        return Subquery(this=instance, alias=alias)
2352
2353    def limit(
2354        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2355    ) -> Select:
2356        raise NotImplementedError
2357
2358    @property
2359    def ctes(self):
2360        with_ = self.args.get("with")
2361        if not with_:
2362            return []
2363        return with_.expressions
2364
2365    @property
2366    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2367        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `selects`")
2368
2369    @property
2370    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2371        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `named_selects`")
2372
2373    def select(
2374        self,
2375        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2376        append: bool = True,
2377        dialect: DialectType = None,
2378        copy: bool = True,
2379        **opts,
2380    ) -> Subqueryable:
2381        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `select`")
2382
2383    def with_(
2384        self,
2385        alias: ExpOrStr,
2386        as_: ExpOrStr,
2387        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
2388        append: bool = True,
2389        dialect: DialectType = None,
2390        copy: bool = True,
2391        **opts,
2392    ) -> Subqueryable:
2393        """
2394        Append to or set the common table expressions.
2395
2396        Example:
2397            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
2398            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
2399
2400        Args:
2401            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2402                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2403            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
2404                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2405            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
2406            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2407                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2408            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2409            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2410            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2411
2412        Returns:
2413            The modified expression.
2414        """
2415        return _apply_cte_builder(
2416            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2417        )
2418
2419
2420QUERY_MODIFIERS = {
2421    "match": False,
2422    "laterals": False,
2423    "joins": False,
2424    "connect": False,
2425    "pivots": False,
2426    "where": False,
2427    "group": False,
2428    "having": False,
2429    "qualify": False,
2430    "windows": False,
2431    "distribute": False,
2432    "sort": False,
2433    "cluster": False,
2434    "order": False,
2435    "limit": False,
2436    "offset": False,
2437    "locks": False,
2438    "sample": False,
2439    "settings": False,
2440    "format": False,
2441}
2442
2443
2444# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-table?view=sql-server-ver16
2445class WithTableHint(Expression):
2446    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2447
2448
2449# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/index-hints.html
2450class IndexTableHint(Expression):
2451    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "target": False}
2452
2453
2454class Table(Expression):
2455    arg_types = {
2456        "this": True,
2457        "alias": False,
2458        "db": False,
2459        "catalog": False,
2460        "laterals": False,
2461        "joins": False,
2462        "pivots": False,
2463        "hints": False,
2464        "system_time": False,
2465        "version": False,
2466        "format": False,
2467        "pattern": False,
2468    }
2469
2470    @property
2471    def name(self) -> str:
2472        if isinstance(self.this, Func):
2473            return ""
2474        return self.this.name
2475
2476    @property
2477    def db(self) -> str:
2478        return self.text("db")
2479
2480    @property
2481    def catalog(self) -> str:
2482        return self.text("catalog")
2483
2484    @property
2485    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2486        return []
2487
2488    @property
2489    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2490        return []
2491
2492    @property
2493    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2494        """Return the parts of a table in order catalog, db, table."""
2495        parts: t.List[Expression] = []
2496
2497        for arg in ("catalog", "db", "this"):
2498            part = self.args.get(arg)
2499
2500            if isinstance(part, Dot):
2501                parts.extend(part.flatten())
2502            elif isinstance(part, Expression):
2503                parts.append(part)
2504
2505        return parts
2506
2507
2508class Union(Subqueryable):
2509    arg_types = {
2510        "with": False,
2511        "this": True,
2512        "expression": True,
2513        "distinct": False,
2514        "by_name": False,
2515        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2516    }
2517
2518    def limit(
2519        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2520    ) -> Select:
2521        """
2522        Set the LIMIT expression.
2523
2524        Example:
2525            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
2526            'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
2527
2528        Args:
2529            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
2530                This can also be an integer.
2531                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2532                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2533            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2534            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2535            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2536
2537        Returns:
2538            The limited subqueryable.
2539        """
2540        return (
2541            select("*")
2542            .from_(self.subquery(alias="_l_0", copy=copy))
2543            .limit(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2544        )
2545
2546    def select(
2547        self,
2548        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2549        append: bool = True,
2550        dialect: DialectType = None,
2551        copy: bool = True,
2552        **opts,
2553    ) -> Union:
2554        """Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.
2555
2556        Example:
2557            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
2558            >>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
2559            'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
2560
2561        Args:
2562            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2563                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2564            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2565                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2566            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2567            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2568            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2569
2570        Returns:
2571            Union: the modified expression.
2572        """
2573        this = self.copy() if copy else self
2574        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2575        this.expression.unnest().select(
2576            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
2577        )
2578        return this
2579
2580    @property
2581    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2582        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
2583
2584    @property
2585    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2586        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
2587
2588    @property
2589    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2590        return self.this.unnest().selects
2591
2592    @property
2593    def left(self):
2594        return self.this
2595
2596    @property
2597    def right(self):
2598        return self.expression
2599
2600
2601class Except(Union):
2602    pass
2603
2604
2605class Intersect(Union):
2606    pass
2607
2608
2609class Unnest(UDTF):
2610    arg_types = {
2611        "expressions": True,
2612        "alias": False,
2613        "offset": False,
2614    }
2615
2616
2617class Update(Expression):
2618    arg_types = {
2619        "with": False,
2620        "this": False,
2621        "expressions": True,
2622        "from": False,
2623        "where": False,
2624        "returning": False,
2625        "order": False,
2626        "limit": False,
2627    }
2628
2629
2630class Values(UDTF):
2631    arg_types = {
2632        "expressions": True,
2633        "ordinality": False,
2634        "alias": False,
2635    }
2636
2637
2638class Var(Expression):
2639    pass
2640
2641
2642class Version(Expression):
2643    """
2644    Time travel, iceberg, bigquery etc
2645    https://trino.io/docs/current/connector/iceberg.html?highlight=snapshot#using-snapshots
2646    https://www.databricks.com/blog/2019/02/04/introducing-delta-time-travel-for-large-scale-data-lakes.html
2647    https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax#for_system_time_as_of
2648    https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/tables/querying-data-in-a-system-versioned-temporal-table?view=sql-server-ver16
2649    this is either TIMESTAMP or VERSION
2650    kind is ("AS OF", "BETWEEN")
2651    """
2652
2653    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": False}
2654
2655
2656class Schema(Expression):
2657    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
2658
2659
2660# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/select.html
2661# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/SELECT.html
2662class Lock(Expression):
2663    arg_types = {"update": True, "expressions": False, "wait": False}
2664
2665
2666class Select(Subqueryable):
2667    arg_types = {
2668        "with": False,
2669        "kind": False,
2670        "expressions": False,
2671        "hint": False,
2672        "distinct": False,
2673        "into": False,
2674        "from": False,
2675        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2676    }
2677
2678    def from_(
2679        self, expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2680    ) -> Select:
2681        """
2682        Set the FROM expression.
2683
2684        Example:
2685            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
2686            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
2687
2688        Args:
2689            expression : the SQL code strings to parse.
2690                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2691                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
2692            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2693            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2694            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2695
2696        Returns:
2697            The modified Select expression.
2698        """
2699        return _apply_builder(
2700            expression=expression,
2701            instance=self,
2702            arg="from",
2703            into=From,
2704            prefix="FROM",
2705            dialect=dialect,
2706            copy=copy,
2707            **opts,
2708        )
2709
2710    def group_by(
2711        self,
2712        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2713        append: bool = True,
2714        dialect: DialectType = None,
2715        copy: bool = True,
2716        **opts,
2717    ) -> Select:
2718        """
2719        Set the GROUP BY expression.
2720
2721        Example:
2722            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
2723            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
2724
2725        Args:
2726            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2727                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2728                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
2729                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
2730            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2731                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
2732            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2733            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2734            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2735
2736        Returns:
2737            The modified Select expression.
2738        """
2739        if not expressions:
2740            return self if not copy else self.copy()
2741
2742        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2743            *expressions,
2744            instance=self,
2745            arg="group",
2746            append=append,
2747            copy=copy,
2748            prefix="GROUP BY",
2749            into=Group,
2750            dialect=dialect,
2751            **opts,
2752        )
2753
2754    def order_by(
2755        self,
2756        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2757        append: bool = True,
2758        dialect: DialectType = None,
2759        copy: bool = True,
2760        **opts,
2761    ) -> Select:
2762        """
2763        Set the ORDER BY expression.
2764
2765        Example:
2766            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
2767            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
2768
2769        Args:
2770            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2771                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2772                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
2773            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2774                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2775            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2776            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2777            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2778
2779        Returns:
2780            The modified Select expression.
2781        """
2782        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2783            *expressions,
2784            instance=self,
2785            arg="order",
2786            append=append,
2787            copy=copy,
2788            prefix="ORDER BY",
2789            into=Order,
2790            dialect=dialect,
2791            **opts,
2792        )
2793
2794    def sort_by(
2795        self,
2796        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2797        append: bool = True,
2798        dialect: DialectType = None,
2799        copy: bool = True,
2800        **opts,
2801    ) -> Select:
2802        """
2803        Set the SORT BY expression.
2804
2805        Example:
2806            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
2807            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
2808
2809        Args:
2810            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2811                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2812                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
2813            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2814                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2815            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2816            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2817            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2818
2819        Returns:
2820            The modified Select expression.
2821        """
2822        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2823            *expressions,
2824            instance=self,
2825            arg="sort",
2826            append=append,
2827            copy=copy,
2828            prefix="SORT BY",
2829            into=Sort,
2830            dialect=dialect,
2831            **opts,
2832        )
2833
2834    def cluster_by(
2835        self,
2836        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2837        append: bool = True,
2838        dialect: DialectType = None,
2839        copy: bool = True,
2840        **opts,
2841    ) -> Select:
2842        """
2843        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
2844
2845        Example:
2846            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
2847            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
2848
2849        Args:
2850            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2851                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2852                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
2853            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2854                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2855            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2856            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2857            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2858
2859        Returns:
2860            The modified Select expression.
2861        """
2862        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2863            *expressions,
2864            instance=self,
2865            arg="cluster",
2866            append=append,
2867            copy=copy,
2868            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
2869            into=Cluster,
2870            dialect=dialect,
2871            **opts,
2872        )
2873
2874    def limit(
2875        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2876    ) -> Select:
2877        """
2878        Set the LIMIT expression.
2879
2880        Example:
2881            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
2882            'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
2883
2884        Args:
2885            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
2886                This can also be an integer.
2887                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2888                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2889            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2890            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2891            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2892
2893        Returns:
2894            Select: the modified expression.
2895        """
2896        return _apply_builder(
2897            expression=expression,
2898            instance=self,
2899            arg="limit",
2900            into=Limit,
2901            prefix="LIMIT",
2902            dialect=dialect,
2903            copy=copy,
2904            into_arg="expression",
2905            **opts,
2906        )
2907
2908    def offset(
2909        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2910    ) -> Select:
2911        """
2912        Set the OFFSET expression.
2913
2914        Example:
2915            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
2916            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
2917
2918        Args:
2919            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
2920                This can also be an integer.
2921                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2922                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
2923            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2924            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2925            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2926
2927        Returns:
2928            The modified Select expression.
2929        """
2930        return _apply_builder(
2931            expression=expression,
2932            instance=self,
2933            arg="offset",
2934            into=Offset,
2935            prefix="OFFSET",
2936            dialect=dialect,
2937            copy=copy,
2938            into_arg="expression",
2939            **opts,
2940        )
2941
2942    def select(
2943        self,
2944        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2945        append: bool = True,
2946        dialect: DialectType = None,
2947        copy: bool = True,
2948        **opts,
2949    ) -> Select:
2950        """
2951        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
2952
2953        Example:
2954            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
2955            'SELECT x, y'
2956
2957        Args:
2958            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2959                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2960            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2961                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2962            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2963            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2964            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2965
2966        Returns:
2967            The modified Select expression.
2968        """
2969        return _apply_list_builder(
2970            *expressions,
2971            instance=self,
2972            arg="expressions",
2973            append=append,
2974            dialect=dialect,
2975            copy=copy,
2976            **opts,
2977        )
2978
2979    def lateral(
2980        self,
2981        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2982        append: bool = True,
2983        dialect: DialectType = None,
2984        copy: bool = True,
2985        **opts,
2986    ) -> Select:
2987        """
2988        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
2989
2990        Example:
2991            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
2992            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
2993
2994        Args:
2995            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2996                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2997            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2998                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2999            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3000            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3001            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3002
3003        Returns:
3004            The modified Select expression.
3005        """
3006        return _apply_list_builder(
3007            *expressions,
3008            instance=self,
3009            arg="laterals",
3010            append=append,
3011            into=Lateral,
3012            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
3013            dialect=dialect,
3014            copy=copy,
3015            **opts,
3016        )
3017
3018    def join(
3019        self,
3020        expression: ExpOrStr,
3021        on: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
3022        using: t.Optional[ExpOrStr | t.Collection[ExpOrStr]] = None,
3023        append: bool = True,
3024        join_type: t.Optional[str] = None,
3025        join_alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
3026        dialect: DialectType = None,
3027        copy: bool = True,
3028        **opts,
3029    ) -> Select:
3030        """
3031        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
3032
3033        Example:
3034            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
3035            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3036
3037            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
3038            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
3039
3040            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
3041
3042            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
3043            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3044
3045        Args:
3046            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3047                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3048            on: optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
3049                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3050            using: optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
3051                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3052            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3053                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3054            join_type: if set, alter the parsed join type.
3055            join_alias: an optional alias for the joined source.
3056            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3057            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3058            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3059
3060        Returns:
3061            Select: the modified expression.
3062        """
3063        parse_args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
3064
3065        try:
3066            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
3067        except ParseError:
3068            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
3069
3070        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
3071
3072        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
3073            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
3074
3075        if join_type:
3076            method: t.Optional[Token]
3077            side: t.Optional[Token]
3078            kind: t.Optional[Token]
3079
3080            method, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
3081
3082            if method:
3083                join.set("method", method.text)
3084            if side:
3085                join.set("side", side.text)
3086            if kind:
3087                join.set("kind", kind.text)
3088
3089        if on:
3090            on = and_(*ensure_list(on), dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
3091            join.set("on", on)
3092
3093        if using:
3094            join = _apply_list_builder(
3095                *ensure_list(using),
3096                instance=join,
3097                arg="using",
3098                append=append,
3099                copy=copy,
3100                into=Identifier,
3101                **opts,
3102            )
3103
3104        if join_alias:
3105            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
3106
3107        return _apply_list_builder(
3108            join,
3109            instance=self,
3110            arg="joins",
3111            append=append,
3112            copy=copy,
3113            **opts,
3114        )
3115
3116    def where(
3117        self,
3118        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3119        append: bool = True,
3120        dialect: DialectType = None,
3121        copy: bool = True,
3122        **opts,
3123    ) -> Select:
3124        """
3125        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
3126
3127        Example:
3128            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
3129            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
3130
3131        Args:
3132            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3133                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3134                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3135            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3136                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3137            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3138            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3139            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3140
3141        Returns:
3142            Select: the modified expression.
3143        """
3144        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3145            *expressions,
3146            instance=self,
3147            arg="where",
3148            append=append,
3149            into=Where,
3150            dialect=dialect,
3151            copy=copy,
3152            **opts,
3153        )
3154
3155    def having(
3156        self,
3157        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3158        append: bool = True,
3159        dialect: DialectType = None,
3160        copy: bool = True,
3161        **opts,
3162    ) -> Select:
3163        """
3164        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
3165
3166        Example:
3167            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
3168            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
3169
3170        Args:
3171            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3172                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3173                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3174            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3175                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3176            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3177            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3178            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3179
3180        Returns:
3181            The modified Select expression.
3182        """
3183        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3184            *expressions,
3185            instance=self,
3186            arg="having",
3187            append=append,
3188            into=Having,
3189            dialect=dialect,
3190            copy=copy,
3191            **opts,
3192        )
3193
3194    def window(
3195        self,
3196        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3197        append: bool = True,
3198        dialect: DialectType = None,
3199        copy: bool = True,
3200        **opts,
3201    ) -> Select:
3202        return _apply_list_builder(
3203            *expressions,
3204            instance=self,
3205            arg="windows",
3206            append=append,
3207            into=Window,
3208            dialect=dialect,
3209            copy=copy,
3210            **opts,
3211        )
3212
3213    def qualify(
3214        self,
3215        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3216        append: bool = True,
3217        dialect: DialectType = None,
3218        copy: bool = True,
3219        **opts,
3220    ) -> Select:
3221        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3222            *expressions,
3223            instance=self,
3224            arg="qualify",
3225            append=append,
3226            into=Qualify,
3227            dialect=dialect,
3228            copy=copy,
3229            **opts,
3230        )
3231
3232    def distinct(
3233        self, *ons: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], distinct: bool = True, copy: bool = True
3234    ) -> Select:
3235        """
3236        Set the OFFSET expression.
3237
3238        Example:
3239            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
3240            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
3241
3242        Args:
3243            ons: the expressions to distinct on
3244            distinct: whether the Select should be distinct
3245            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3246
3247        Returns:
3248            Select: the modified expression.
3249        """
3250        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3251        on = Tuple(expressions=[maybe_parse(on, copy=copy) for on in ons if on]) if ons else None
3252        instance.set("distinct", Distinct(on=on) if distinct else None)
3253        return instance
3254
3255    def ctas(
3256        self,
3257        table: ExpOrStr,
3258        properties: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3259        dialect: DialectType = None,
3260        copy: bool = True,
3261        **opts,
3262    ) -> Create:
3263        """
3264        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
3265
3266        Example:
3267            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
3268            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
3269
3270        Args:
3271            table: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
3272                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3273            properties: an optional mapping of table properties
3274            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input table.
3275            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3276            opts: other options to use to parse the input table.
3277
3278        Returns:
3279            The new Create expression.
3280        """
3281        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3282        table_expression = maybe_parse(
3283            table,
3284            into=Table,
3285            dialect=dialect,
3286            **opts,
3287        )
3288        properties_expression = None
3289        if properties:
3290            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
3291
3292        return Create(
3293            this=table_expression,
3294            kind="table",
3295            expression=instance,
3296            properties=properties_expression,
3297        )
3298
3299    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3300        """
3301        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
3302
3303        Examples:
3304            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
3305            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
3306
3307            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
3308            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
3309
3310        Args:
3311            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
3312            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3313
3314        Returns:
3315            The modified expression.
3316        """
3317        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3318        inst.set("locks", [Lock(update=update)])
3319
3320        return inst
3321
3322    def hint(self, *hints: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3323        """
3324        Set hints for this expression.
3325
3326        Examples:
3327            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").hint("BROADCAST(y)").sql(dialect="spark")
3328            'SELECT /*+ BROADCAST(y) */ x FROM tbl'
3329
3330        Args:
3331            hints: The SQL code strings to parse as the hints.
3332                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3333            dialect: The dialect used to parse the hints.
3334            copy: If `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3335
3336        Returns:
3337            The modified expression.
3338        """
3339        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3340        inst.set(
3341            "hint", Hint(expressions=[maybe_parse(h, copy=copy, dialect=dialect) for h in hints])
3342        )
3343
3344        return inst
3345
3346    @property
3347    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3348        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
3349
3350    @property
3351    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3352        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
3353
3354    @property
3355    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3356        return self.expressions
3357
3358
3359class Subquery(DerivedTable, Unionable):
3360    arg_types = {
3361        "this": True,
3362        "alias": False,
3363        "with": False,
3364        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3365    }
3366
3367    def unnest(self):
3368        """
3369        Returns the first non subquery.
3370        """
3371        expression = self
3372        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
3373            expression = expression.this
3374        return expression
3375
3376    def unwrap(self) -> Subquery:
3377        expression = self
3378        while expression.same_parent and expression.is_wrapper:
3379            expression = t.cast(Subquery, expression.parent)
3380        return expression
3381
3382    @property
3383    def is_wrapper(self) -> bool:
3384        """
3385        Whether this Subquery acts as a simple wrapper around another expression.
3386
3387        SELECT * FROM (((SELECT * FROM t)))
3388                      ^
3389                      This corresponds to a "wrapper" Subquery node
3390        """
3391        return all(v is None for k, v in self.args.items() if k != "this")
3392
3393    @property
3394    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3395        return self.this.is_star
3396
3397    @property
3398    def output_name(self) -> str:
3399        return self.alias
3400
3401
3402class TableSample(Expression):
3403    arg_types = {
3404        "this": False,
3405        "expressions": False,
3406        "method": False,
3407        "bucket_numerator": False,
3408        "bucket_denominator": False,
3409        "bucket_field": False,
3410        "percent": False,
3411        "rows": False,
3412        "size": False,
3413        "seed": False,
3414        "kind": False,
3415    }
3416
3417
3418class Tag(Expression):
3419    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
3420
3421    arg_types = {
3422        "this": False,
3423        "prefix": False,
3424        "postfix": False,
3425    }
3426
3427
3428# Represents both the standard SQL PIVOT operator and DuckDB's "simplified" PIVOT syntax
3429# https://duckdb.org/docs/sql/statements/pivot
3430class Pivot(Expression):
3431    arg_types = {
3432        "this": False,
3433        "alias": False,
3434        "expressions": True,
3435        "field": False,
3436        "unpivot": False,
3437        "using": False,
3438        "group": False,
3439        "columns": False,
3440        "include_nulls": False,
3441    }
3442
3443
3444class Window(Condition):
3445    arg_types = {
3446        "this": True,
3447        "partition_by": False,
3448        "order": False,
3449        "spec": False,
3450        "alias": False,
3451        "over": False,
3452        "first": False,
3453    }
3454
3455
3456class WindowSpec(Expression):
3457    arg_types = {
3458        "kind": False,
3459        "start": False,
3460        "start_side": False,
3461        "end": False,
3462        "end_side": False,
3463    }
3464
3465
3466class Where(Expression):
3467    pass
3468
3469
3470class Star(Expression):
3471    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False}
3472
3473    @property
3474    def name(self) -> str:
3475        return "*"
3476
3477    @property
3478    def output_name(self) -> str:
3479        return self.name
3480
3481
3482class Parameter(Condition):
3483    arg_types = {"this": True, "wrapped": False}
3484
3485
3486class SessionParameter(Condition):
3487    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
3488
3489
3490class Placeholder(Condition):
3491    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False}
3492
3493
3494class Null(Condition):
3495    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
3496
3497    @property
3498    def name(self) -> str:
3499        return "NULL"
3500
3501
3502class Boolean(Condition):
3503    pass
3504
3505
3506class DataTypeParam(Expression):
3507    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3508
3509
3510class DataType(Expression):
3511    arg_types = {
3512        "this": True,
3513        "expressions": False,
3514        "nested": False,
3515        "values": False,
3516        "prefix": False,
3517        "kind": False,
3518    }
3519
3520    class Type(AutoName):
3521        ARRAY = auto()
3522        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
3523        BIGINT = auto()
3524        BIGSERIAL = auto()
3525        BINARY = auto()
3526        BIT = auto()
3527        BOOLEAN = auto()
3528        CHAR = auto()
3529        DATE = auto()
3530        DATEMULTIRANGE = auto()
3531        DATERANGE = auto()
3532        DATETIME = auto()
3533        DATETIME64 = auto()
3534        DECIMAL = auto()
3535        DOUBLE = auto()
3536        ENUM = auto()
3537        ENUM8 = auto()
3538        ENUM16 = auto()
3539        FIXEDSTRING = auto()
3540        FLOAT = auto()
3541        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
3542        GEOMETRY = auto()
3543        HLLSKETCH = auto()
3544        HSTORE = auto()
3545        IMAGE = auto()
3546        INET = auto()
3547        INT = auto()
3548        INT128 = auto()
3549        INT256 = auto()
3550        INT4MULTIRANGE = auto()
3551        INT4RANGE = auto()
3552        INT8MULTIRANGE = auto()
3553        INT8RANGE = auto()
3554        INTERVAL = auto()
3555        IPADDRESS = auto()
3556        IPPREFIX = auto()
3557        JSON = auto()
3558        JSONB = auto()
3559        LONGBLOB = auto()
3560        LONGTEXT = auto()
3561        LOWCARDINALITY = auto()
3562        MAP = auto()
3563        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
3564        MEDIUMINT = auto()
3565        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
3566        MONEY = auto()
3567        NCHAR = auto()
3568        NESTED = auto()
3569        NULL = auto()
3570        NULLABLE = auto()
3571        NUMMULTIRANGE = auto()
3572        NUMRANGE = auto()
3573        NVARCHAR = auto()
3574        OBJECT = auto()
3575        ROWVERSION = auto()
3576        SERIAL = auto()
3577        SET = auto()
3578        SMALLINT = auto()
3579        SMALLMONEY = auto()
3580        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
3581        STRUCT = auto()
3582        SUPER = auto()
3583        TEXT = auto()
3584        TINYBLOB = auto()
3585        TINYTEXT = auto()
3586        TIME = auto()
3587        TIMETZ = auto()
3588        TIMESTAMP = auto()
3589        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
3590        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
3591        TINYINT = auto()
3592        TSMULTIRANGE = auto()
3593        TSRANGE = auto()
3594        TSTZMULTIRANGE = auto()
3595        TSTZRANGE = auto()
3596        UBIGINT = auto()
3597        UINT = auto()
3598        UINT128 = auto()
3599        UINT256 = auto()
3600        UMEDIUMINT = auto()
3601        UDECIMAL = auto()
3602        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
3603        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
3604        USERDEFINED = "USER-DEFINED"
3605        USMALLINT = auto()
3606        UTINYINT = auto()
3607        UUID = auto()
3608        VARBINARY = auto()
3609        VARCHAR = auto()
3610        VARIANT = auto()
3611        XML = auto()
3612        YEAR = auto()
3613
3614    TEXT_TYPES = {
3615        Type.CHAR,
3616        Type.NCHAR,
3617        Type.VARCHAR,
3618        Type.NVARCHAR,
3619        Type.TEXT,
3620    }
3621
3622    INTEGER_TYPES = {
3623        Type.INT,
3624        Type.TINYINT,
3625        Type.SMALLINT,
3626        Type.BIGINT,
3627        Type.INT128,
3628        Type.INT256,
3629    }
3630
3631    FLOAT_TYPES = {
3632        Type.FLOAT,
3633        Type.DOUBLE,
3634    }
3635
3636    NUMERIC_TYPES = {
3637        *INTEGER_TYPES,
3638        *FLOAT_TYPES,
3639    }
3640
3641    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
3642        Type.TIME,
3643        Type.TIMETZ,
3644        Type.TIMESTAMP,
3645        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
3646        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
3647        Type.DATE,
3648        Type.DATETIME,
3649        Type.DATETIME64,
3650    }
3651
3652    @classmethod
3653    def build(
3654        cls,
3655        dtype: str | DataType | DataType.Type,
3656        dialect: DialectType = None,
3657        udt: bool = False,
3658        **kwargs,
3659    ) -> DataType:
3660        """
3661        Constructs a DataType object.
3662
3663        Args:
3664            dtype: the data type of interest.
3665            dialect: the dialect to use for parsing `dtype`, in case it's a string.
3666            udt: when set to True, `dtype` will be used as-is if it can't be parsed into a
3667                DataType, thus creating a user-defined type.
3668            kawrgs: additional arguments to pass in the constructor of DataType.
3669
3670        Returns:
3671            The constructed DataType object.
3672        """
3673        from sqlglot import parse_one
3674
3675        if isinstance(dtype, str):
3676            if dtype.upper() == "UNKNOWN":
3677                return DataType(this=DataType.Type.UNKNOWN, **kwargs)
3678
3679            try:
3680                data_type_exp = parse_one(dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType)
3681            except ParseError:
3682                if udt:
3683                    return DataType(this=DataType.Type.USERDEFINED, kind=dtype, **kwargs)
3684                raise
3685        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
3686            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
3687        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
3688            return dtype
3689        else:
3690            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
3691
3692        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
3693
3694    def is_type(self, *dtypes: str | DataType | DataType.Type) -> bool:
3695        """
3696        Checks whether this DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types or precision
3697        will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g. array<int> != array<float>.
3698
3699        Args:
3700            dtypes: the data types to compare this DataType to.
3701
3702        Returns:
3703            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this DataType.
3704        """
3705        for dtype in dtypes:
3706            other = DataType.build(dtype, udt=True)
3707
3708            if (
3709                other.expressions
3710                or self.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
3711                or other.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
3712            ):
3713                matches = self == other
3714            else:
3715                matches = self.this == other.this
3716
3717            if matches:
3718                return True
3719        return False
3720
3721
3722# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-pseudo.html
3723class PseudoType(DataType):
3724    arg_types = {"this": True}
3725
3726
3727# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-oid.html
3728class ObjectIdentifier(DataType):
3729    arg_types = {"this": True}
3730
3731
3732# WHERE x <OP> EXISTS|ALL|ANY|SOME(SELECT ...)
3733class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
3734    pass
3735
3736
3737class All(SubqueryPredicate):
3738    pass
3739
3740
3741class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
3742    pass
3743
3744
3745class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
3746    pass
3747
3748
3749# Commands to interact with the databases or engines. For most of the command
3750# expressions we parse whatever comes after the command's name as a string.
3751class Command(Expression):
3752    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3753
3754
3755class Transaction(Expression):
3756    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False, "mark": False}
3757
3758
3759class Commit(Expression):
3760    arg_types = {"chain": False, "this": False, "durability": False}
3761
3762
3763class Rollback(Expression):
3764    arg_types = {"savepoint": False, "this": False}
3765
3766
3767class AlterTable(Expression):
3768    arg_types = {"this": True, "actions": True, "exists": False, "only": False}
3769
3770
3771class AddConstraint(Expression):
3772    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "enforced": False}
3773
3774
3775class DropPartition(Expression):
3776    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
3777
3778
3779# Binary expressions like (ADD a b)
3780class Binary(Condition):
3781    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3782
3783    @property
3784    def left(self):
3785        return self.this
3786
3787    @property
3788    def right(self):
3789        return self.expression
3790
3791
3792class Add(Binary):
3793    pass
3794
3795
3796class Connector(Binary):
3797    pass
3798
3799
3800class And(Connector):
3801    pass
3802
3803
3804class Or(Connector):
3805    pass
3806
3807
3808class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
3809    pass
3810
3811
3812class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
3813    pass
3814
3815
3816class BitwiseOr(Binary):
3817    pass
3818
3819
3820class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
3821    pass
3822
3823
3824class BitwiseXor(Binary):
3825    pass
3826
3827
3828class Div(Binary):
3829    pass
3830
3831
3832class Overlaps(Binary):
3833    pass
3834
3835
3836class Dot(Binary):
3837    @property
3838    def name(self) -> str:
3839        return self.expression.name
3840
3841    @property
3842    def output_name(self) -> str:
3843        return self.name
3844
3845    @classmethod
3846    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
3847        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
3848        if len(expressions) < 2:
3849            raise ValueError(f"Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
3850
3851        return t.cast(Dot, reduce(lambda x, y: Dot(this=x, expression=y), expressions))
3852
3853
3854class DPipe(Binary):
3855    pass
3856
3857
3858class SafeDPipe(DPipe):
3859    pass
3860
3861
3862class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
3863    pass
3864
3865
3866class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3867    pass
3868
3869
3870class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3871    pass
3872
3873
3874class Distance(Binary):
3875    pass
3876
3877
3878class Escape(Binary):
3879    pass
3880
3881
3882class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
3883    pass
3884
3885
3886class GT(Binary, Predicate):
3887    pass
3888
3889
3890class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
3891    pass
3892
3893
3894class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
3895    pass
3896
3897
3898class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3899    pass
3900
3901
3902class IntDiv(Binary):
3903    pass
3904
3905
3906class Is(Binary, Predicate):
3907    pass
3908
3909
3910class Kwarg(Binary):
3911    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""
3912
3913
3914class Like(Binary, Predicate):
3915    pass
3916
3917
3918class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
3919    pass
3920
3921
3922class LT(Binary, Predicate):
3923    pass
3924
3925
3926class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
3927    pass
3928
3929
3930class Mod(Binary):
3931    pass
3932
3933
3934class Mul(Binary):
3935    pass
3936
3937
3938class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
3939    pass
3940
3941
3942class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
3943    pass
3944
3945
3946class Slice(Binary):
3947    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
3948
3949
3950class Sub(Binary):
3951    pass
3952
3953
3954class ArrayOverlaps(Binary):
3955    pass
3956
3957
3958# Unary Expressions
3959# (NOT a)
3960class Unary(Condition):
3961    pass
3962
3963
3964class BitwiseNot(Unary):
3965    pass
3966
3967
3968class Not(Unary):
3969    pass
3970
3971
3972class Paren(Unary):
3973    arg_types = {"this": True, "with": False}
3974
3975    @property
3976    def output_name(self) -> str:
3977        return self.this.name
3978
3979
3980class Neg(Unary):
3981    pass
3982
3983
3984class Alias(Expression):
3985    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
3986
3987    @property
3988    def output_name(self) -> str:
3989        return self.alias
3990
3991
3992class Aliases(Expression):
3993    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
3994
3995    @property
3996    def aliases(self):
3997        return self.expressions
3998
3999
4000class AtTimeZone(Expression):
4001    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4002
4003
4004class Between(Predicate):
4005    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
4006
4007
4008class Bracket(Condition):
4009    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
4010
4011    @property
4012    def output_name(self) -> str:
4013        if len(self.expressions) == 1:
4014            return self.expressions[0].output_name
4015
4016        return super().output_name
4017
4018
4019class SafeBracket(Bracket):
4020    """Represents array lookup where OOB index yields NULL instead of causing a failure."""
4021
4022
4023class Distinct(Expression):
4024    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
4025
4026
4027class In(Predicate):
4028    arg_types = {
4029        "this": True,
4030        "expressions": False,
4031        "query": False,
4032        "unnest": False,
4033        "field": False,
4034        "is_global": False,
4035    }
4036
4037
4038class TimeUnit(Expression):
4039    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
4040
4041    arg_types = {"unit": False}
4042
4043    def __init__(self, **args):
4044        unit = args.get("unit")
4045        if isinstance(unit, (Column, Literal)):
4046            args["unit"] = Var(this=unit.name)
4047        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4048            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name))
4049
4050        super().__init__(**args)
4051
4052    @property
4053    def unit(self) -> t.Optional[Var]:
4054        return self.args.get("unit")
4055
4056
4057class IntervalOp(TimeUnit):
4058    arg_types = {"unit": True, "expression": True}
4059
4060    def interval(self):
4061        return Interval(
4062            this=self.expression.copy(),
4063            unit=self.unit.copy(),
4064        )
4065
4066
4067# https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-interval/
4068# https://trino.io/docs/current/language/types.html#interval-day-to-second
4069# https://docs.databricks.com/en/sql/language-manual/data-types/interval-type.html
4070class IntervalSpan(DataType):
4071    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4072
4073
4074class Interval(TimeUnit):
4075    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
4076
4077
4078class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
4079    pass
4080
4081
4082class RespectNulls(Expression):
4083    pass
4084
4085
4086# Functions
4087class Func(Condition):
4088    """
4089    The base class for all function expressions.
4090
4091    Attributes:
4092        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
4093            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
4094        _sql_names (list): determines the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items)
4095            for this function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing
4096            as well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
4097            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
4098    """
4099
4100    is_var_len_args = False
4101
4102    @classmethod
4103    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
4104        if cls.is_var_len_args:
4105            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
4106            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
4107            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
4108            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
4109
4110            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
4111            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
4112        else:
4113            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
4114
4115        return cls(**args_dict)
4116
4117    @classmethod
4118    def sql_names(cls):
4119        if cls is Func:
4120            raise NotImplementedError(
4121                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
4122            )
4123        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
4124            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
4125        return cls._sql_names
4126
4127    @classmethod
4128    def sql_name(cls):
4129        return cls.sql_names()[0]
4130
4131    @classmethod
4132    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
4133        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
4134
4135
4136class AggFunc(Func):
4137    pass
4138
4139
4140class ParameterizedAgg(AggFunc):
4141    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True}
4142
4143
4144class Abs(Func):
4145    pass
4146
4147
4148# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#transform
4149class Transform(Func):
4150    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4151
4152
4153class Anonymous(Func):
4154    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4155    is_var_len_args = True
4156
4157
4158# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/hll
4159# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_HLL_function.html
4160class Hll(AggFunc):
4161    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4162    is_var_len_args = True
4163
4164
4165class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
4166    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
4167    _sql_names = ["APPROX_DISTINCT", "APPROX_COUNT_DISTINCT"]
4168
4169
4170class Array(Func):
4171    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
4172    is_var_len_args = True
4173
4174
4175# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_char
4176class ToChar(Func):
4177    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
4178
4179
4180class GenerateSeries(Func):
4181    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False}
4182
4183
4184class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
4185    pass
4186
4187
4188class ArrayAll(Func):
4189    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4190
4191
4192class ArrayAny(Func):
4193    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4194
4195
4196class ArrayConcat(Func):
4197    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONCAT", "ARRAY_CAT"]
4198    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4199    is_var_len_args = True
4200
4201
4202class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
4203    pass
4204
4205
4206class ArrayContained(Binary):
4207    pass
4208
4209
4210class ArrayFilter(Func):
4211    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4212    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
4213
4214
4215class ArrayJoin(Func):
4216    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
4217
4218
4219class ArraySize(Func):
4220    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4221
4222
4223class ArraySort(Func):
4224    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4225
4226
4227class ArraySum(Func):
4228    pass
4229
4230
4231class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
4232    pass
4233
4234
4235class Avg(AggFunc):
4236    pass
4237
4238
4239class AnyValue(AggFunc):
4240    arg_types = {"this": True, "having": False, "max": False, "ignore_nulls": False}
4241
4242
4243class First(Func):
4244    arg_types = {"this": True, "ignore_nulls": False}
4245
4246
4247class Last(Func):
4248    arg_types = {"this": True, "ignore_nulls": False}
4249
4250
4251class Case(Func):
4252    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
4253
4254    def when(self, condition: ExpOrStr, then: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4255        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4256        instance.append(
4257            "ifs",
4258            If(
4259                this=maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts),
4260                true=maybe_parse(then, copy=copy, **opts),
4261            ),
4262        )
4263        return instance
4264
4265    def else_(self, condition: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4266        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4267        instance.set("default", maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts))
4268        return instance
4269
4270
4271class Cast(Func):
4272    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True, "format": False}
4273
4274    @property
4275    def name(self) -> str:
4276        return self.this.name
4277
4278    @property
4279    def to(self) -> DataType:
4280        return self.args["to"]
4281
4282    @property
4283    def output_name(self) -> str:
4284        return self.name
4285
4286    def is_type(self, *dtypes: str | DataType | DataType.Type) -> bool:
4287        """
4288        Checks whether this Cast's DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types
4289        like arrays or structs will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g.
4290        array<int> != array<float>.
4291
4292        Args:
4293            dtypes: the data types to compare this Cast's DataType to.
4294
4295        Returns:
4296            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this Cast's DataType.
4297        """
4298        return self.to.is_type(*dtypes)
4299
4300
4301class TryCast(Cast):
4302    pass
4303
4304
4305class CastToStrType(Func):
4306    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
4307
4308
4309class Collate(Binary, Func):
4310    pass
4311
4312
4313class Ceil(Func):
4314    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4315    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
4316
4317
4318class Coalesce(Func):
4319    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4320    is_var_len_args = True
4321    _sql_names = ["COALESCE", "IFNULL", "NVL"]
4322
4323
4324class Chr(Func):
4325    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": False, "expressions": False}
4326    is_var_len_args = True
4327    _sql_names = ["CHR", "CHAR"]
4328
4329
4330class Concat(Func):
4331    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4332    is_var_len_args = True
4333
4334
4335class SafeConcat(Concat):
4336    pass
4337
4338
4339class ConcatWs(Concat):
4340    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
4341
4342
4343class Count(AggFunc):
4344    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
4345    is_var_len_args = True
4346
4347
4348class CountIf(AggFunc):
4349    pass
4350
4351
4352class CurrentDate(Func):
4353    arg_types = {"this": False}
4354
4355
4356class CurrentDatetime(Func):
4357    arg_types = {"this": False}
4358
4359
4360class CurrentTime(Func):
4361    arg_types = {"this": False}
4362
4363
4364class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
4365    arg_types = {"this": False}
4366
4367
4368class CurrentUser(Func):
4369    arg_types = {"this": False}
4370
4371
4372class DateAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4373    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4374
4375
4376class DateSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4377    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4378
4379
4380class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4381    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
4382    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4383
4384
4385class DateTrunc(Func):
4386    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
4387
4388    @property
4389    def unit(self) -> Expression:
4390        return self.args["unit"]
4391
4392
4393class DatetimeAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4394    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4395
4396
4397class DatetimeSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4398    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4399
4400
4401class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4402    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4403
4404
4405class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4406    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4407
4408
4409class DayOfWeek(Func):
4410    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
4411
4412
4413class DayOfMonth(Func):
4414    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
4415
4416
4417class DayOfYear(Func):
4418    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
4419
4420
4421class ToDays(Func):
4422    pass
4423
4424
4425class WeekOfYear(Func):
4426    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
4427
4428
4429class MonthsBetween(Func):
4430    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "roundoff": False}
4431
4432
4433class LastDateOfMonth(Func):
4434    pass
4435
4436
4437class Extract(Func):
4438    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4439
4440
4441class Timestamp(Func):
4442    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
4443
4444
4445class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
4446    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4447
4448
4449class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
4450    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4451
4452
4453class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4454    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4455
4456
4457class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4458    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4459
4460
4461class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
4462    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4463
4464
4465class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
4466    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4467
4468
4469class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4470    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4471
4472
4473class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4474    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4475
4476
4477class DateFromParts(Func):
4478    _sql_names = ["DATEFROMPARTS"]
4479    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
4480
4481
4482class DateStrToDate(Func):
4483    pass
4484
4485
4486class DateToDateStr(Func):
4487    pass
4488
4489
4490class DateToDi(Func):
4491    pass
4492
4493
4494# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#date
4495class Date(Func):
4496    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False, "expressions": False}
4497    is_var_len_args = True
4498
4499
4500class Day(Func):
4501    pass
4502
4503
4504class Decode(Func):
4505    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
4506
4507
4508class DiToDate(Func):
4509    pass
4510
4511
4512class Encode(Func):
4513    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
4514
4515
4516class Exp(Func):
4517    pass
4518
4519
4520class Explode(Func):
4521    pass
4522
4523
4524class Floor(Func):
4525    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4526
4527
4528class FromBase64(Func):
4529    pass
4530
4531
4532class ToBase64(Func):
4533    pass
4534
4535
4536class Greatest(Func):
4537    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4538    is_var_len_args = True
4539
4540
4541class GroupConcat(AggFunc):
4542    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
4543
4544
4545class Hex(Func):
4546    pass
4547
4548
4549class Xor(Connector, Func):
4550    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
4551
4552
4553class If(Func):
4554    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
4555
4556
4557class Initcap(Func):
4558    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4559
4560
4561class IsNan(Func):
4562    _sql_names = ["IS_NAN", "ISNAN"]
4563
4564
4565class FormatJson(Expression):
4566    pass
4567
4568
4569class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
4570    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4571
4572
4573class JSONObject(Func):
4574    arg_types = {
4575        "expressions": False,
4576        "null_handling": False,
4577        "unique_keys": False,
4578        "return_type": False,
4579        "encoding": False,
4580    }
4581
4582
4583# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAY.html
4584class JSONArray(Func):
4585    arg_types = {
4586        "expressions": True,
4587        "null_handling": False,
4588        "return_type": False,
4589        "strict": False,
4590    }
4591
4592
4593# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAYAGG.html
4594class JSONArrayAgg(Func):
4595    arg_types = {
4596        "this": True,
4597        "order": False,
4598        "null_handling": False,
4599        "return_type": False,
4600        "strict": False,
4601    }
4602
4603
4604# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
4605# Note: parsing of JSON column definitions is currently incomplete.
4606class JSONColumnDef(Expression):
4607    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False, "path": False}
4608
4609
4610# # https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
4611class JSONTable(Func):
4612    arg_types = {
4613        "this": True,
4614        "expressions": True,
4615        "path": False,
4616        "error_handling": False,
4617        "empty_handling": False,
4618    }
4619
4620
4621class OpenJSONColumnDef(Expression):
4622    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "path": False, "as_json": False}
4623
4624
4625class OpenJSON(Func):
4626    arg_types = {"this": True, "path": False, "expressions": False}
4627
4628
4629class JSONBContains(Binary):
4630    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
4631
4632
4633class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
4634    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
4635
4636
4637class JSONExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
4638    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
4639
4640
4641class JSONBExtract(JSONExtract):
4642    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
4643
4644
4645class JSONBExtractScalar(JSONExtract):
4646    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
4647
4648
4649class JSONFormat(Func):
4650    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
4651    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
4652
4653
4654# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/json-search-functions.html#operator_member-of
4655class JSONArrayContains(Binary, Predicate, Func):
4656    _sql_names = ["JSON_ARRAY_CONTAINS"]
4657
4658
4659class ParseJSON(Func):
4660    # BigQuery, Snowflake have PARSE_JSON, Presto has JSON_PARSE
4661    _sql_names = ["PARSE_JSON", "JSON_PARSE"]
4662
4663
4664class Least(Func):
4665    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4666    is_var_len_args = True
4667
4668
4669class Left(Func):
4670    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4671
4672
4673class Right(Func):
4674    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4675
4676
4677class Length(Func):
4678    _sql_names = ["LENGTH", "LEN"]
4679
4680
4681class Levenshtein(Func):
4682    arg_types = {
4683        "this": True,
4684        "expression": False,
4685        "ins_cost": False,
4686        "del_cost": False,
4687        "sub_cost": False,
4688    }
4689
4690
4691class Ln(Func):
4692    pass
4693
4694
4695class Log(Func):
4696    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4697
4698
4699class Log2(Func):
4700    pass
4701
4702
4703class Log10(Func):
4704    pass
4705
4706
4707class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
4708    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
4709
4710
4711class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
4712    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
4713
4714
4715class Lower(Func):
4716    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
4717
4718
4719class Map(Func):
4720    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
4721
4722
4723class MapFromEntries(Func):
4724    pass
4725
4726
4727class StarMap(Func):
4728    pass
4729
4730
4731class VarMap(Func):
4732    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
4733    is_var_len_args = True
4734
4735    @property
4736    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
4737        return self.args["keys"].expressions
4738
4739    @property
4740    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
4741        return self.args["values"].expressions
4742
4743
4744# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/fulltext-search.html
4745class MatchAgainst(Func):
4746    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
4747
4748
4749class Max(AggFunc):
4750    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4751    is_var_len_args = True
4752
4753
4754class MD5(Func):
4755    _sql_names = ["MD5"]
4756
4757
4758# Represents the variant of the MD5 function that returns a binary value
4759class MD5Digest(Func):
4760    _sql_names = ["MD5_DIGEST"]
4761
4762
4763class Min(AggFunc):
4764    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4765    is_var_len_args = True
4766
4767
4768class Month(Func):
4769    pass
4770
4771
4772class Nvl2(Func):
4773    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
4774
4775
4776class Posexplode(Func):
4777    pass
4778
4779
4780class Pow(Binary, Func):
4781    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
4782
4783
4784class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
4785    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4786
4787
4788class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
4789    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4790
4791
4792class Quantile(AggFunc):
4793    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
4794
4795
4796class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
4797    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
4798
4799
4800class RangeN(Func):
4801    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
4802
4803
4804class ReadCSV(Func):
4805    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
4806    is_var_len_args = True
4807    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4808
4809
4810class Reduce(Func):
4811    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
4812
4813
4814class RegexpExtract(Func):
4815    arg_types = {
4816        "this": True,
4817        "expression": True,
4818        "position": False,
4819        "occurrence": False,
4820        "parameters": False,
4821        "group": False,
4822    }
4823
4824
4825class RegexpReplace(Func):
4826    arg_types = {
4827        "this": True,
4828        "expression": True,
4829        "replacement": True,
4830        "position": False,
4831        "occurrence": False,
4832        "parameters": False,
4833    }
4834
4835
4836class RegexpLike(Binary, Func):
4837    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
4838
4839
4840class RegexpILike(Func):
4841    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
4842
4843
4844# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.functions.split.html
4845# limit is the number of times a pattern is applied
4846class RegexpSplit(Func):
4847    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
4848
4849
4850class Repeat(Func):
4851    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
4852
4853
4854class Round(Func):
4855    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4856
4857
4858class RowNumber(Func):
4859    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
4860
4861
4862class SafeDivide(Func):
4863    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4864
4865
4866class SetAgg(AggFunc):
4867    pass
4868
4869
4870class SHA(Func):
4871    _sql_names = ["SHA", "SHA1"]
4872
4873
4874class SHA2(Func):
4875    _sql_names = ["SHA2"]
4876    arg_types = {"this": True, "length": False}
4877
4878
4879class SortArray(Func):
4880    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
4881
4882
4883class Split(Func):
4884    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
4885
4886
4887# Start may be omitted in the case of postgres
4888# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/functions-string.html @ Table 9-6
4889class Substring(Func):
4890    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
4891
4892
4893class StandardHash(Func):
4894    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4895
4896
4897class StartsWith(Func):
4898    _sql_names = ["STARTS_WITH", "STARTSWITH"]
4899    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4900
4901
4902class StrPosition(Func):
4903    arg_types = {
4904        "this": True,
4905        "substr": True,
4906        "position": False,
4907        "instance": False,
4908    }
4909
4910
4911class StrToDate(Func):
4912    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
4913
4914
4915class StrToTime(Func):
4916    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "zone": False}
4917
4918
4919# Spark allows unix_timestamp()
4920# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.3/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.functions.unix_timestamp.html
4921class StrToUnix(Func):
4922    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
4923
4924
4925# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/string.html
4926# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#str_to_map
4927class StrToMap(Func):
4928    arg_types = {
4929        "this": True,
4930        "pair_delim": False,
4931        "key_value_delim": False,
4932        "duplicate_resolution_callback": False,
4933    }
4934
4935
4936class NumberToStr(Func):
4937    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
4938
4939
4940class FromBase(Func):
4941    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4942
4943
4944class Struct(Func):
4945    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4946    is_var_len_args = True
4947
4948
4949class StructExtract(Func):
4950    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4951
4952
4953# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/stuff-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4954# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/insert
4955class Stuff(Func):
4956    _sql_names = ["STUFF", "INSERT"]
4957    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": True, "length": True, "expression": True}
4958
4959
4960class Sum(AggFunc):
4961    pass
4962
4963
4964class Sqrt(Func):
4965    pass
4966
4967
4968class Stddev(AggFunc):
4969    pass
4970
4971
4972class StddevPop(AggFunc):
4973    pass
4974
4975
4976class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
4977    pass
4978
4979
4980class TimeToStr(Func):
4981    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
4982
4983
4984class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
4985    pass
4986
4987
4988class TimeToUnix(Func):
4989    pass
4990
4991
4992class TimeStrToDate(Func):
4993    pass
4994
4995
4996class TimeStrToTime(Func):
4997    pass
4998
4999
5000class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
5001    pass
5002
5003
5004class Trim(Func):
5005    arg_types = {
5006        "this": True,
5007        "expression": False,
5008        "position": False,
5009        "collation": False,
5010    }
5011
5012
5013class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5014    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5015
5016
5017class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
5018    pass
5019
5020
5021class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
5022    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
5023
5024
5025class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
5026    pass
5027
5028
5029class Unhex(Func):
5030    pass
5031
5032
5033class UnixToStr(Func):
5034    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
5035
5036
5037# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/datetime.html
5038# presto has weird zone/hours/minutes
5039class UnixToTime(Func):
5040    arg_types = {"this": True, "scale": False, "zone": False, "hours": False, "minutes": False}
5041
5042    SECONDS = Literal.string("seconds")
5043    MILLIS = Literal.string("millis")
5044    MICROS = Literal.string("micros")
5045
5046
5047class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
5048    pass
5049
5050
5051class Upper(Func):
5052    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
5053
5054
5055class Variance(AggFunc):
5056    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
5057
5058
5059class VariancePop(AggFunc):
5060    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
5061
5062
5063class Week(Func):
5064    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
5065
5066
5067class XMLTable(Func):
5068    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
5069
5070
5071class Year(Func):
5072    pass
5073
5074
5075class Use(Expression):
5076    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
5077
5078
5079class Merge(Expression):
5080    arg_types = {"this": True, "using": True, "on": True, "expressions": True}
5081
5082
5083class When(Func):
5084    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
5085
5086
5087# https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqljnextvaluefor.html
5088# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/next-value-for-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5089class NextValueFor(Func):
5090    arg_types = {"this": True, "order": False}
5091
5092
5093def _norm_arg(arg):
5094    return arg.lower() if type(arg) is str else arg
5095
5096
5097ALL_FUNCTIONS = subclasses(__name__, Func, (AggFunc, Anonymous, Func))
5098
5099
5100# Helpers
5101@t.overload
5102def maybe_parse(
5103    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5104    *,
5105    into: t.Type[E],
5106    dialect: DialectType = None,
5107    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5108    copy: bool = False,
5109    **opts,
5110) -> E:
5111    ...
5112
5113
5114@t.overload
5115def maybe_parse(
5116    sql_or_expression: str | E,
5117    *,
5118    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5119    dialect: DialectType = None,
5120    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5121    copy: bool = False,
5122    **opts,
5123) -> E:
5124    ...
5125
5126
5127def maybe_parse(
5128    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5129    *,
5130    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5131    dialect: DialectType = None,
5132    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5133    copy: bool = False,
5134    **opts,
5135) -> Expression:
5136    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
5137
5138    Example:
5139        >>> maybe_parse("1")
5140        (LITERAL this: 1, is_string: False)
5141        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
5142        (IDENTIFIER this: x, quoted: False)
5143
5144    Args:
5145        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
5146        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
5147        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
5148            input expression is a SQL string).
5149        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
5150            (automatically includes a space)
5151        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5152        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5153            that an input expression is a SQL string).
5154
5155    Returns:
5156        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
5157    """
5158    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
5159        if copy:
5160            return sql_or_expression.copy()
5161        return sql_or_expression
5162
5163    if sql_or_expression is None:
5164        raise ParseError(f"SQL cannot be None")
5165
5166    import sqlglot
5167
5168    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
5169    if prefix:
5170        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
5171
5172    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)
5173
5174
5175@t.overload
5176def maybe_copy(instance: None, copy: bool = True) -> None:
5177    ...
5178
5179
5180@t.overload
5181def maybe_copy(instance: E, copy: bool = True) -> E:
5182    ...
5183
5184
5185def maybe_copy(instance, copy=True):
5186    return instance.copy() if copy and instance else instance
5187
5188
5189def _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5190    return isinstance(expression, Expression) and not isinstance(expression, into)
5191
5192
5193def _apply_builder(
5194    expression,
5195    instance,
5196    arg,
5197    copy=True,
5198    prefix=None,
5199    into=None,
5200    dialect=None,
5201    into_arg="this",
5202    **opts,
5203):
5204    if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5205        expression = into(**{into_arg: expression})
5206    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5207    expression = maybe_parse(
5208        sql_or_expression=expression,
5209        prefix=prefix,
5210        into=into,
5211        dialect=dialect,
5212        **opts,
5213    )
5214    instance.set(arg, expression)
5215    return instance
5216
5217
5218def _apply_child_list_builder(
5219    *expressions,
5220    instance,
5221    arg,
5222    append=True,
5223    copy=True,
5224    prefix=None,
5225    into=None,
5226    dialect=None,
5227    properties=None,
5228    **opts,
5229):
5230    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5231    parsed = []
5232    for expression in expressions:
5233        if expression is not None:
5234            if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5235                expression = into(expressions=[expression])
5236
5237            expression = maybe_parse(
5238                expression,
5239                into=into,
5240                dialect=dialect,
5241                prefix=prefix,
5242                **opts,
5243            )
5244            parsed.extend(expression.expressions)
5245
5246    existing = instance.args.get(arg)
5247    if append and existing:
5248        parsed = existing.expressions + parsed
5249
5250    child = into(expressions=parsed)
5251    for k, v in (properties or {}).items():
5252        child.set(k, v)
5253    instance.set(arg, child)
5254
5255    return instance
5256
5257
5258def _apply_list_builder(
5259    *expressions,
5260    instance,
5261    arg,
5262    append=True,
5263    copy=True,
5264    prefix=None,
5265    into=None,
5266    dialect=None,
5267    **opts,
5268):
5269    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5270
5271    expressions = [
5272        maybe_parse(
5273            sql_or_expression=expression,
5274            into=into,
5275            prefix=prefix,
5276            dialect=dialect,
5277            **opts,
5278        )
5279        for expression in expressions
5280        if expression is not None
5281    ]
5282
5283    existing_expressions = inst.args.get(arg)
5284    if append and existing_expressions:
5285        expressions = existing_expressions + expressions
5286
5287    inst.set(arg, expressions)
5288    return inst
5289
5290
5291def _apply_conjunction_builder(
5292    *expressions,
5293    instance,
5294    arg,
5295    into=None,
5296    append=True,
5297    copy=True,
5298    dialect=None,
5299    **opts,
5300):
5301    expressions = [exp for exp in expressions if exp is not None and exp != ""]
5302    if not expressions:
5303        return instance
5304
5305    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5306
5307    existing = inst.args.get(arg)
5308    if append and existing is not None:
5309        expressions = [existing.this if into else existing] + list(expressions)
5310
5311    node = and_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5312
5313    inst.set(arg, into(this=node) if into else node)
5314    return inst
5315
5316
5317def _apply_cte_builder(
5318    instance: E,
5319    alias: ExpOrStr,
5320    as_: ExpOrStr,
5321    recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
5322    append: bool = True,
5323    dialect: DialectType = None,
5324    copy: bool = True,
5325    **opts,
5326) -> E:
5327    alias_expression = maybe_parse(alias, dialect=dialect, into=TableAlias, **opts)
5328    as_expression = maybe_parse(as_, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5329    cte = CTE(this=as_expression, alias=alias_expression)
5330    return _apply_child_list_builder(
5331        cte,
5332        instance=instance,
5333        arg="with",
5334        append=append,
5335        copy=copy,
5336        into=With,
5337        properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
5338    )
5339
5340
5341def _combine(
5342    expressions: t.Sequence[t.Optional[ExpOrStr]],
5343    operator: t.Type[Connector],
5344    dialect: DialectType = None,
5345    copy: bool = True,
5346    **opts,
5347) -> Expression:
5348    conditions = [
5349        condition(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5350        for expression in expressions
5351        if expression is not None
5352    ]
5353
5354    this, *rest = conditions
5355    if rest:
5356        this = _wrap(this, Connector)
5357    for expression in rest:
5358        this = operator(this=this, expression=_wrap(expression, Connector))
5359
5360    return this
5361
5362
5363def _wrap(expression: E, kind: t.Type[Expression]) -> E | Paren:
5364    return Paren(this=expression) if isinstance(expression, kind) else expression
5365
5366
5367def union(
5368    left: ExpOrStr, right: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
5369) -> Union:
5370    """
5371    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
5372
5373    Example:
5374        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5375        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
5376
5377    Args:
5378        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5379            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5380        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5381            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5382        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5383        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5384        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5385
5386    Returns:
5387        The new Union instance.
5388    """
5389    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5390    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5391
5392    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5393
5394
5395def intersect(
5396    left: ExpOrStr, right: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
5397) -> Intersect:
5398    """
5399    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
5400
5401    Example:
5402        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5403        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
5404
5405    Args:
5406        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5407            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5408        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5409            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5410        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5411        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5412        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5413
5414    Returns:
5415        The new Intersect instance.
5416    """
5417    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5418    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5419
5420    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5421
5422
5423def except_(
5424    left: ExpOrStr, right: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
5425) -> Except:
5426    """
5427    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
5428
5429    Example:
5430        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5431        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
5432
5433    Args:
5434        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5435            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5436        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5437            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5438        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5439        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5440        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5441
5442    Returns:
5443        The new Except instance.
5444    """
5445    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5446    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5447
5448    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5449
5450
5451def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
5452    """
5453    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
5454
5455    Example:
5456        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
5457        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
5458
5459    Args:
5460        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
5461            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5462        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
5463            input expression is a SQL string).
5464        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5465            that an input expression is a SQL string).
5466
5467    Returns:
5468        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
5469    """
5470    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5471
5472
5473def from_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
5474    """
5475    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
5476
5477    Example:
5478        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
5479        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
5480
5481    Args:
5482        *expression: the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
5483            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5484        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
5485            input expression is a SQL string).
5486        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5487            that the input expression is a SQL string).
5488
5489    Returns:
5490        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
5491    """
5492    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5493
5494
5495def update(
5496    table: str | Table,
5497    properties: dict,
5498    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
5499    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
5500    dialect: DialectType = None,
5501    **opts,
5502) -> Update:
5503    """
5504    Creates an update statement.
5505
5506    Example:
5507        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
5508        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
5509
5510    Args:
5511        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
5512            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
5513        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
5514        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
5515        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
5516        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5517
5518    Returns:
5519        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
5520    """
5521    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
5522    update_expr.set(
5523        "expressions",
5524        [
5525            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
5526            for k, v in properties.items()
5527        ],
5528    )
5529    if from_:
5530        update_expr.set(
5531            "from",
5532            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
5533        )
5534    if isinstance(where, Condition):
5535        where = Where(this=where)
5536    if where:
5537        update_expr.set(
5538            "where",
5539            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
5540        )
5541    return update_expr
5542
5543
5544def delete(
5545    table: ExpOrStr,
5546    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
5547    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
5548    dialect: DialectType = None,
5549    **opts,
5550) -> Delete:
5551    """
5552    Builds a delete statement.
5553
5554    Example:
5555        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
5556        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
5557
5558    Args:
5559        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
5560        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
5561        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
5562        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5563
5564    Returns:
5565        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
5566    """
5567    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
5568    if where:
5569        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
5570    if returning:
5571        delete_expr = delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
5572    return delete_expr
5573
5574
5575def insert(
5576    expression: ExpOrStr,
5577    into: ExpOrStr,
5578    columns: t.Optional[t.Sequence[ExpOrStr]] = None,
5579    overwrite: t.Optional[bool] = None,
5580    dialect: DialectType = None,
5581    copy: bool = True,
5582    **opts,
5583) -> Insert:
5584    """
5585    Builds an INSERT statement.
5586
5587    Example:
5588        >>> insert("VALUES (1, 2, 3)", "tbl").sql()
5589        'INSERT INTO tbl VALUES (1, 2, 3)'
5590
5591    Args:
5592        expression: the sql string or expression of the INSERT statement
5593        into: the tbl to insert data to.
5594        columns: optionally the table's column names.
5595        overwrite: whether to INSERT OVERWRITE or not.
5596        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
5597        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5598        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5599
5600    Returns:
5601        Insert: the syntax tree for the INSERT statement.
5602    """
5603    expr = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5604    this: Table | Schema = maybe_parse(into, into=Table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5605
5606    if columns:
5607        this = _apply_list_builder(
5608            *columns,
5609            instance=Schema(this=this),
5610            arg="expressions",
5611            into=Identifier,
5612            copy=False,
5613            dialect=dialect,
5614            **opts,
5615        )
5616
5617    return Insert(this=this, expression=expr, overwrite=overwrite)
5618
5619
5620def condition(
5621    expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
5622) -> Condition:
5623    """
5624    Initialize a logical condition expression.
5625
5626    Example:
5627        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
5628        'x = 1'
5629
5630        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
5631        >>> where = condition("x=1")
5632        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
5633        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
5634        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
5635
5636    Args:
5637        *expression: the SQL code string to parse.
5638            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5639        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
5640            input expression is a SQL string).
5641        copy: Whether or not to copy `expression` (only applies to expressions).
5642        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5643            that the input expression is a SQL string).
5644
5645    Returns:
5646        The new Condition instance
5647    """
5648    return maybe_parse(
5649        expression,
5650        into=Condition,
5651        dialect=dialect,
5652        copy=copy,
5653        **opts,
5654    )
5655
5656
5657def and_(
5658    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
5659) -> Condition:
5660    """
5661    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
5662
5663    Example:
5664        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
5665        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
5666
5667    Args:
5668        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
5669            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5670        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5671        copy: whether or not to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
5672        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5673
5674    Returns:
5675        And: the new condition
5676    """
5677    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, And, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
5678
5679
5680def or_(
5681    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
5682) -> Condition:
5683    """
5684    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
5685
5686    Example:
5687        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
5688        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
5689
5690    Args:
5691        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
5692            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5693        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5694        copy: whether or not to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
5695        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5696
5697    Returns:
5698        Or: the new condition
5699    """
5700    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
5701
5702
5703def not_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Not:
5704    """
5705    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
5706
5707    Example:
5708        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
5709        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
5710
5711    Args:
5712        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
5713            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5714        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5715        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
5716        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5717
5718    Returns:
5719        The new condition.
5720    """
5721    this = condition(
5722        expression,
5723        dialect=dialect,
5724        copy=copy,
5725        **opts,
5726    )
5727    return Not(this=_wrap(this, Connector))
5728
5729
5730def paren(expression: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True) -> Paren:
5731    """
5732    Wrap an expression in parentheses.
5733
5734    Example:
5735        >>> paren("5 + 3").sql()
5736        '(5 + 3)'
5737
5738    Args:
5739        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
5740            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5741        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
5742
5743    Returns:
5744        The wrapped expression.
5745    """
5746    return Paren(this=maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy))
5747
5748
5749SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE = re.compile(r"^[_a-zA-Z][\w]*$")
5750
5751
5752@t.overload
5753def to_identifier(name: None, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True) -> None:
5754    ...
5755
5756
5757@t.overload
5758def to_identifier(
5759    name: str | Identifier, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True
5760) -> Identifier:
5761    ...
5762
5763
5764def to_identifier(name, quoted=None, copy=True):
5765    """Builds an identifier.
5766
5767    Args:
5768        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
5769        quoted: Whether or not force quote the identifier.
5770        copy: Whether or not to copy a passed in Identefier node.
5771
5772    Returns:
5773        The identifier ast node.
5774    """
5775
5776    if name is None:
5777        return None
5778
5779    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
5780        identifier = maybe_copy(name, copy)
5781    elif isinstance(name, str):
5782        identifier = Identifier(
5783            this=name,
5784            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
5785        )
5786    else:
5787        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
5788    return identifier
5789
5790
5791INTERVAL_STRING_RE = re.compile(r"\s*([0-9]+)\s*([a-zA-Z]+)\s*")
5792
5793
5794def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
5795    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
5796    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
5797        if not interval.is_string:
5798            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
5799
5800        interval = interval.this
5801
5802    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
5803
5804    if not interval_parts:
5805        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
5806
5807    return Interval(
5808        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
5809        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2)),
5810    )
5811
5812
5813@t.overload
5814def to_table(sql_path: str | Table, **kwargs) -> Table:
5815    ...
5816
5817
5818@t.overload
5819def to_table(sql_path: None, **kwargs) -> None:
5820    ...
5821
5822
5823def to_table(
5824    sql_path: t.Optional[str | Table], dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
5825) -> t.Optional[Table]:
5826    """
5827    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
5828    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
5829
5830    Args:
5831        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
5832        dialect: the source dialect according to which the table name will be parsed.
5833        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Table` expression with.
5834
5835    Returns:
5836        A table expression.
5837    """
5838    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Table):
5839        return sql_path
5840    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
5841        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for a table: {type(sql_path)}")
5842
5843    table = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
5844    if table:
5845        for k, v in kwargs.items():
5846            table.set(k, v)
5847
5848    return table
5849
5850
5851def to_column(sql_path: str | Column, **kwargs) -> Column:
5852    """
5853    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Schema is optional.
5854
5855    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
5856
5857    Args:
5858        sql_path: `[table].[column]` string
5859    Returns:
5860        Table: A column expression
5861    """
5862    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Column):
5863        return sql_path
5864    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
5865        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for column: {type(sql_path)}")
5866    return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), **kwargs)  # type: ignore
5867
5868
5869def alias_(
5870    expression: ExpOrStr,
5871    alias: str | Identifier,
5872    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
5873    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
5874    dialect: DialectType = None,
5875    copy: bool = True,
5876    **opts,
5877):
5878    """Create an Alias expression.
5879
5880    Example:
5881        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
5882        'foo AS bar'
5883
5884        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
5885        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
5886
5887    Args:
5888        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
5889            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5890        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
5891            special characters it is quoted.
5892        table: Whether or not to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
5893        quoted: whether or not to quote the alias
5894        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5895        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression.
5896        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5897
5898    Returns:
5899        Alias: the aliased expression
5900    """
5901    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5902    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
5903
5904    if table:
5905        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
5906        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
5907
5908        if not isinstance(table, bool):
5909            for column in table:
5910                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
5911
5912        return exp
5913
5914    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
5915    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
5916    # for the complete Window expression.
5917    #
5918    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
5919
5920    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
5921        exp.set("alias", alias)
5922        return exp
5923    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)
5924
5925
5926def subquery(
5927    expression: ExpOrStr,
5928    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
5929    dialect: DialectType = None,
5930    **opts,
5931) -> Select:
5932    """
5933    Build a subquery expression.
5934
5935    Example:
5936        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
5937        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
5938
5939    Args:
5940        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
5941            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5942        alias: the alias name to use.
5943        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5944        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5945
5946    Returns:
5947        A new Select instance with the subquery expression included.
5948    """
5949
5950    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias)
5951    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5952
5953
5954def column(
5955    col: str | Identifier,
5956    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
5957    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
5958    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
5959    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
5960) -> Column:
5961    """
5962    Build a Column.
5963
5964    Args:
5965        col: Column name.
5966        table: Table name.
5967        db: Database name.
5968        catalog: Catalog name.
5969        quoted: Whether to force quotes on the column's identifiers.
5970
5971    Returns:
5972        The new Column instance.
5973    """
5974    return Column(
5975        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted),
5976        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted),
5977        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted),
5978        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted),
5979    )
5980
5981
5982def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: str | DataType | DataType.Type, **opts) -> Cast:
5983    """Cast an expression to a data type.
5984
5985    Example:
5986        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
5987        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
5988
5989    Args:
5990        expression: The expression to cast.
5991        to: The datatype to cast to.
5992
5993    Returns:
5994        The new Cast instance.
5995    """
5996    expression = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
5997    data_type = DataType.build(to, **opts)
5998    expression = Cast(this=expression, to=data_type)
5999    expression.type = data_type
6000    return expression
6001
6002
6003def table_(
6004    table: Identifier | str,
6005    db: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6006    catalog: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6007    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6008    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6009) -> Table:
6010    """Build a Table.
6011
6012    Args:
6013        table: Table name.
6014        db: Database name.
6015        catalog: Catalog name.
6016        quote: Whether to force quotes on the table's identifiers.
6017        alias: Table's alias.
6018
6019    Returns:
6020        The new Table instance.
6021    """
6022    return Table(
6023        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted) if table else None,
6024        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted) if db else None,
6025        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted) if catalog else None,
6026        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
6027    )
6028
6029
6030def values(
6031    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
6032    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
6033    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
6034) -> Values:
6035    """Build VALUES statement.
6036
6037    Example:
6038        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
6039        "VALUES (1, '2')"
6040
6041    Args:
6042        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
6043        alias: optional alias
6044        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
6045         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
6046
6047    Returns:
6048        Values: the Values expression object
6049    """
6050    if columns and not alias:
6051        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
6052
6053    return Values(
6054        expressions=[convert(tup) for tup in values],
6055        alias=(
6056            TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
6057            if columns
6058            else (TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None)
6059        ),
6060    )
6061
6062
6063def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
6064    """Build a SQL variable.
6065
6066    Example:
6067        >>> repr(var('x'))
6068        '(VAR this: x)'
6069
6070        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
6071        '(VAR this: x)'
6072
6073    Args:
6074        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
6075
6076    Returns:
6077        The new variable node.
6078    """
6079    if not name:
6080        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
6081
6082    if isinstance(name, Expression):
6083        name = name.name
6084    return Var(this=name)
6085
6086
6087def rename_table(old_name: str | Table, new_name: str | Table) -> AlterTable:
6088    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
6089
6090    Args:
6091        old_name: The old name of the table
6092        new_name: The new name of the table
6093
6094    Returns:
6095        Alter table expression
6096    """
6097    old_table = to_table(old_name)
6098    new_table = to_table(new_name)
6099    return AlterTable(
6100        this=old_table,
6101        actions=[
6102            RenameTable(this=new_table),
6103        ],
6104    )
6105
6106
6107def convert(value: t.Any, copy: bool = False) -> Expression:
6108    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
6109
6110    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
6111
6112    Args:
6113        value: A python object.
6114        copy: Whether or not to copy `value` (only applies to Expressions and collections).
6115
6116    Returns:
6117        Expression: the equivalent expression object.
6118    """
6119    if isinstance(value, Expression):
6120        return maybe_copy(value, copy)
6121    if isinstance(value, str):
6122        return Literal.string(value)
6123    if isinstance(value, bool):
6124        return Boolean(this=value)
6125    if value is None or (isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value)):
6126        return NULL
6127    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
6128        return Literal.number(value)
6129    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
6130        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
6131            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat()
6132        )
6133        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
6134    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
6135        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
6136        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
6137    if isinstance(value, tuple):
6138        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
6139    if isinstance(value, list):
6140        return Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
6141    if isinstance(value, dict):
6142        return Map(
6143            keys=Array(expressions=[convert(k, copy=copy) for k in value]),
6144            values=Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value.values()]),
6145        )
6146    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")
6147
6148
6149def replace_children(expression: Expression, fun: t.Callable, *args, **kwargs) -> None:
6150    """
6151    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
6152    """
6153    for k, v in expression.args.items():
6154        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
6155
6156        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
6157        new_child_nodes = []
6158
6159        for cn in child_nodes:
6160            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
6161                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
6162                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
6163                    child_node.parent = expression
6164                    child_node.arg_key = k
6165            else:
6166                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
6167
6168        expression.args[k] = new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0)
6169
6170
6171def column_table_names(expression: Expression, exclude: str = "") -> t.Set[str]:
6172    """
6173    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
6174
6175    Example:
6176        >>> import sqlglot
6177        >>> sorted(column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e")))
6178        ['a', 'c']
6179
6180    Args:
6181        expression: expression to find table names.
6182        exclude: a table name to exclude
6183
6184    Returns:
6185        A list of unique names.
6186    """
6187    return {
6188        table
6189        for table in (column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column))
6190        if table and table != exclude
6191    }
6192
6193
6194def table_name(table: Table | str, dialect: DialectType = None) -> str:
6195    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
6196
6197    Args:
6198        table: Table expression node or string.
6199        dialect: The dialect to generate the table name for.
6200
6201    Examples:
6202        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6203        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
6204        'a.b.c'
6205
6206    Returns:
6207        The table name.
6208    """
6209
6210    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
6211
6212    if not table:
6213        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
6214
6215    return ".".join(
6216        part.sql(dialect=dialect, identify=True)
6217        if not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(part.name)
6218        else part.name
6219        for part in table.parts
6220    )
6221
6222
6223def replace_tables(expression: E, mapping: t.Dict[str, str], copy: bool = True) -> E:
6224    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
6225
6226    Args:
6227        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
6228        mapping: mapping of table names.
6229        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
6230
6231    Examples:
6232        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6233        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
6234        'SELECT * FROM c'
6235
6236    Returns:
6237        The mapped expression.
6238    """
6239
6240    def _replace_tables(node: Expression) -> Expression:
6241        if isinstance(node, Table):
6242            new_name = mapping.get(table_name(node))
6243            if new_name:
6244                return to_table(
6245                    new_name,
6246                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in ("this", "db", "catalog")},
6247                )
6248        return node
6249
6250    return expression.transform(_replace_tables, copy=copy)
6251
6252
6253def replace_placeholders(expression: Expression, *args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
6254    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
6255
6256    Args:
6257        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
6258        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
6259        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
6260
6261    Examples:
6262        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6263        >>> replace_placeholders(
6264        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
6265        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
6266        ... ).sql()
6267        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
6268
6269    Returns:
6270        The mapped expression.
6271    """
6272
6273    def _replace_placeholders(node: Expression, args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
6274        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
6275            if node.name:
6276                new_name = kwargs.get(node.name)
6277                if new_name:
6278                    return convert(new_name)
6279            else:
6280                try:
6281                    return convert(next(args))
6282                except StopIteration:
6283                    pass
6284        return node
6285
6286    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)
6287
6288
6289def expand(
6290    expression: Expression, sources: t.Dict[str, Subqueryable], copy: bool = True
6291) -> Expression:
6292    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
6293
6294    Examples:
6295        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
6296        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
6297        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
6298
6299        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
6300        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
6301
6302    Args:
6303        expression: The expression to expand.
6304        sources: A dictionary of name to Subqueryables.
6305        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
6306
6307    Returns:
6308        The transformed expression.
6309    """
6310
6311    def _expand(node: Expression):
6312        if isinstance(node, Table):
6313            name = table_name(node)
6314            source = sources.get(name)
6315            if source:
6316                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
6317                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
6318                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
6319        return node
6320
6321    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)
6322
6323
6324def func(name: str, *args, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
6325    """
6326    Returns a Func expression.
6327
6328    Examples:
6329        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
6330        'ABS(5)'
6331
6332        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
6333        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
6334
6335    Args:
6336        name: the name of the function to build.
6337        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
6338        dialect: the source dialect.
6339        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
6340
6341    Note:
6342        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
6343
6344    Returns:
6345        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
6346        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
6347    """
6348    if args and kwargs:
6349        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
6350
6351    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
6352
6353    converted: t.List[Expression] = [maybe_parse(arg, dialect=dialect) for arg in args]
6354    kwargs = {key: maybe_parse(value, dialect=dialect) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
6355
6356    parser = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)().parser()
6357    from_args_list = parser.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
6358
6359    if from_args_list:
6360        function = from_args_list(converted) if converted else from_args_list.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
6361    else:
6362        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
6363        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
6364
6365    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
6366        raise ValueError(error_message)
6367
6368    return function
6369
6370
6371def true() -> Boolean:
6372    """
6373    Returns a true Boolean expression.
6374    """
6375    return Boolean(this=True)
6376
6377
6378def false() -> Boolean:
6379    """
6380    Returns a false Boolean expression.
6381    """
6382    return Boolean(this=False)
6383
6384
6385def null() -> Null:
6386    """
6387    Returns a Null expression.
6388    """
6389    return Null()
6390
6391
6392# TODO: deprecate this
6393TRUE = Boolean(this=True)
6394FALSE = Boolean(this=False)
6395NULL = Null()