sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 159    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 160
 161    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 162        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 163        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 164        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 165        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 166        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 167        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 168        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 169    }
 170
 171    STAR_MAPPING = {
 172        "except": "EXCEPT",
 173        "replace": "REPLACE",
 174    }
 175
 176    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 177        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 178        "seconds": "second",
 179        "minutes": "minute",
 180        "hours": "hour",
 181        "days": "day",
 182        "weeks": "week",
 183        "months": "month",
 184        "quarters": "quarter",
 185        "years": "year",
 186    }
 187
 188    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 189
 190    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 191
 192    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 193
 194    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 195        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 196        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 198        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 206        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 213        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 214        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 215        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 216        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 218        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 222        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 226        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 227        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 229        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 231        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 240        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 244        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 246        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 248        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 249        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250    }
 251
 252    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 253    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 254
 255    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 256    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 257        exp.Select,
 258        exp.From,
 259        exp.Where,
 260        exp.With,
 261    )
 262
 263    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 264    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 265        exp.Column,
 266        exp.Literal,
 267        exp.Neg,
 268        exp.Paren,
 269    )
 270
 271    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 272
 273    # Autofilled
 274    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 275    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 276    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 277    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 278    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 279    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 280    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 281    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 282    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 283    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 284
 285    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 286
 287    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 288    QUOTE_START = "'"
 289    QUOTE_END = "'"
 290    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 291    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 292    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 293    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 294
 295    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 296    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 297    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 298    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 299    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 300    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 301    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 302
 303    __slots__ = (
 304        "pretty",
 305        "identify",
 306        "normalize",
 307        "pad",
 308        "_indent",
 309        "normalize_functions",
 310        "unsupported_level",
 311        "max_unsupported",
 312        "leading_comma",
 313        "max_text_width",
 314        "comments",
 315        "unsupported_messages",
 316        "_escaped_quote_end",
 317        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 318        "_cache",
 319    )
 320
 321    def __init__(
 322        self,
 323        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 324        identify: str | bool = False,
 325        normalize: bool = False,
 326        pad: int = 2,
 327        indent: int = 2,
 328        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 329        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 330        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 331        leading_comma: bool = False,
 332        max_text_width: int = 80,
 333        comments: bool = True,
 334    ):
 335        import sqlglot
 336
 337        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 338        self.identify = identify
 339        self.normalize = normalize
 340        self.pad = pad
 341        self._indent = indent
 342        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 343        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 344        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 345        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 346        self.comments = comments
 347
 348        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 349        self.normalize_functions = (
 350            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 351        )
 352
 353        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 354        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 355        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 356        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 357
 358    def generate(
 359        self,
 360        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 361        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 362    ) -> str:
 363        """
 364        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 365
 366        Args:
 367            expression: The syntax tree.
 368            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 369                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 370
 371        Returns:
 372            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 373        """
 374        if cache is not None:
 375            self._cache = cache
 376
 377        self.unsupported_messages = []
 378        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 379        self._cache = None
 380
 381        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 382            return sql
 383
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 385            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 386                logger.warning(msg)
 387        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 388            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 389
 390        if self.pretty:
 391            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 392        return sql
 393
 394    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 395        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 396            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 397        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 398
 399    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 400        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 401
 402    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 403        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 404
 405    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 406        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 407        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 408        return comment
 409
 410    def maybe_comment(
 411        self,
 412        sql: str,
 413        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 414        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 415    ) -> str:
 416        comments = (
 417            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 418            if self.comments
 419            else None
 420        )
 421
 422        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 423            return sql
 424
 425        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 426        comments_sql = sep.join(
 427            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 428        )
 429
 430        if not comments_sql:
 431            return sql
 432
 433        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 434            return (
 435                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 436                if sql[0].isspace()
 437                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 438            )
 439
 440        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 441
 442    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 443        this_sql = self.indent(
 444            self.sql(expression)
 445            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 446            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 447            level=1,
 448            pad=0,
 449        )
 450        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 451
 452    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 453        original = self.identify
 454        self.identify = False
 455        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 456        self.identify = original
 457        return result
 458
 459    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 460        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 461            return name.upper()
 462        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 463            return name.lower()
 464        return name
 465
 466    def indent(
 467        self,
 468        sql: str,
 469        level: int = 0,
 470        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 471        skip_first: bool = False,
 472        skip_last: bool = False,
 473    ) -> str:
 474        if not self.pretty:
 475            return sql
 476
 477        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 478        lines = sql.split("\n")
 479
 480        return "\n".join(
 481            line
 482            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 483            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 484            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 485        )
 486
 487    def sql(
 488        self,
 489        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 490        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 491        comment: bool = True,
 492    ) -> str:
 493        if not expression:
 494            return ""
 495
 496        if isinstance(expression, str):
 497            return expression
 498
 499        if key:
 500            value = expression.args.get(key)
 501            if value:
 502                return self.sql(value)
 503            return ""
 504
 505        if self._cache is not None:
 506            expression_id = hash(expression)
 507
 508            if expression_id in self._cache:
 509                return self._cache[expression_id]
 510
 511        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 512
 513        if callable(transform):
 514            sql = transform(self, expression)
 515        elif transform:
 516            sql = transform
 517        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 518            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 519
 520            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 521                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 522            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 523                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 524            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 525                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 526            else:
 527                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 528        else:
 529            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 530
 531        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 532
 533        if self._cache is not None:
 534            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 535        return sql
 536
 537    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 540        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 541
 542    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 543        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 544        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 545        options = expression.args.get("options")
 546        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 547        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 548        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 549        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 551
 552    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 553        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 554            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 555        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 556        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 557
 558    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 559        return ".".join(
 560            self.sql(part)
 561            for part in (
 562                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 563                expression.args.get("db"),
 564                expression.args.get("table"),
 565                expression.args.get("this"),
 566            )
 567            if part
 568        )
 569
 570    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 573        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 574        return f"{position}{this}"
 575
 576    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 577        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 578        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 579        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 580        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 581        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 582        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 583        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 584        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 585
 586        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 587
 588    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 590        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 591        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 592
 593    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 594        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 595
 596    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 597        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 598            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 599        else:
 600            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 601
 602        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 603
 604    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 605        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 606    ) -> str:
 607        this = ""
 608        if expression.this is not None:
 609            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 610            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 611
 612        start = expression.args.get("start")
 613        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 614        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 615        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 616        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 617        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 618        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 619        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 620        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 621        cycle_sql = ""
 622
 623        if cycle is not None:
 624            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 625            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 626
 627        sequence_opts = ""
 628        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 629            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 630            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 631
 632        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 633        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 634
 635        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 636
 637    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 639
 640    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 641        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 642        if desc is not None:
 643            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 644        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 645
 646    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 648        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 649        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 650
 651    def createable_sql(
 652        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 653    ) -> str:
 654        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 655
 656    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 657        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 658        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 659        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 660
 661        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 662
 663        properties_sql = ""
 664        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 665            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 666        ):
 667            properties_sql = self.sql(
 668                exp.Properties(
 669                    expressions=[
 670                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 671                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 672                    ]
 673                )
 674            )
 675
 676        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 678        if expression_sql:
 679            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 680
 681            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 682                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 683                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 684                        exp.Properties(
 685                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 686                        ),
 687                        wrapped=False,
 688                    )
 689                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 690                else:
 691                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 692
 693        postindex_props_sql = ""
 694        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 695            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 696                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 697                wrapped=False,
 698                prefix=" ",
 699            )
 700
 701        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 702        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 703        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 704
 705        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 706        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 707
 708        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 709        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 710            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 711                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 712                sep=" ",
 713                prefix=" ",
 714                wrapped=False,
 715            )
 716
 717        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 718
 719        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 720        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 721            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 722                exp.Properties(
 723                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 724                ),
 725                sep=" ",
 726                prefix=" ",
 727                wrapped=False,
 728            )
 729
 730        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 731        no_schema_binding = (
 732            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 733        )
 734
 735        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 736        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 737
 738        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 739        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 740
 741    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 743        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 744
 745        if when:
 746            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 747            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 748            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 749
 750        return f"CLONE {this}"
 751
 752    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 753        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 754
 755    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 756        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 757        if with_:
 758            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 759        return sql
 760
 761    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 762        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 763        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 764
 765        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 766
 767    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 769        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 770
 771    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 772        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 773        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 774        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 775        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 776
 777    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 779        if self.BIT_START:
 780            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 781        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 782
 783    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 785        if self.HEX_START:
 786            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 787        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 788
 789    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        if self.BYTE_START:
 792            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 793        return this
 794
 795    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 796        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 797        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 798
 799    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 802        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 803        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 804
 805    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 806        type_value = expression.this
 807        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 808        nested = ""
 809        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 810        values = ""
 811        if interior:
 812            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 813                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 814                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 815                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 816                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 817                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 818            else:
 819                nested = f"({interior})"
 820
 821        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 822
 823    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 824        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 825        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 826        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 827        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 828
 829    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 832        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 833        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 834        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 836        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 837        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 838        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 839        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 840        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 841
 842    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 845        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 846        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 847        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 848        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 849        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 850        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 851        return (
 852            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 853        )
 854
 855    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 856        return self.prepend_ctes(
 857            expression,
 858            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 859        )
 860
 861    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 862        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 863
 864    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 865        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 866        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 867        count = expression.args.get("count")
 868        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 869        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 870            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 871        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 872        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 873
 874    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 877        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 878
 879    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 880        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 881            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 882            return ""
 883
 884        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 885
 886    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 887        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 888        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 889        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 890        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 891        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 892        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 893        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 894        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 895        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 896        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 897        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 898        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 899        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 900        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 901
 902    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 903        text = expression.name
 904        lower = text.lower()
 905        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 906        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 907        if (
 908            expression.quoted
 909            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 910            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 911            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 912        ):
 913            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 914        return text
 915
 916    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 917        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 918        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 919        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 920        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 921        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 922
 923    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 924        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 925        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 926
 927    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 928        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 929
 930    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 931        root_properties = []
 932        with_properties = []
 933
 934        for p in expression.expressions:
 935            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 936            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 937                with_properties.append(p)
 938            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 939                root_properties.append(p)
 940
 941        return self.root_properties(
 942            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 943        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 944
 945    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 946        if properties.expressions:
 947            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 948        return ""
 949
 950    def properties(
 951        self,
 952        properties: exp.Properties,
 953        prefix: str = "",
 954        sep: str = ", ",
 955        suffix: str = "",
 956        wrapped: bool = True,
 957    ) -> str:
 958        if properties.expressions:
 959            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 960            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 961            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 962        return ""
 963
 964    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 965        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 966
 967    def locate_properties(
 968        self, properties: exp.Properties
 969    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 970        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 971            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 972        }
 973
 974        for p in properties.expressions:
 975            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 976            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 981                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 982            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 983                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 984            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 985                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 986            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 987                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 988            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 989                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 990            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 991                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 992
 993        return properties_locs
 994
 995    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 996        property_cls = expression.__class__
 997        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 998            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 999
1000        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1001        if not property_name:
1002            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1003
1004        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1005
1006    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1007        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1008        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1009        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1010
1011    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1012        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1013        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1014        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1015
1016    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1017        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1018        local = expression.args.get("local")
1019        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1020        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1021        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1022        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1023        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1024
1025    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1026        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1028        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1029
1030    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1031        if expression.args.get("default"):
1032            property = "DEFAULT"
1033        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1034            property = "ON"
1035        else:
1036            property = "OFF"
1037        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1038
1039    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1040        if expression.args.get("no"):
1041            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1042        if expression.args.get("default"):
1043            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1044
1045        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1046        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1047
1048    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1049        default = expression.args.get("default")
1050        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1051        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1052        if default or minimum or maximum:
1053            if default:
1054                prop = "DEFAULT"
1055            elif minimum:
1056                prop = "MINIMUM"
1057            else:
1058                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1059            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1060        units = expression.args.get("units")
1061        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1062        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1063
1064    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1065        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1066        always = expression.args.get("always")
1067        default = expression.args.get("default")
1068        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1069        never = expression.args.get("never")
1070
1071        if autotemp is not None:
1072            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1073        elif always:
1074            prop = "ALWAYS"
1075        elif default:
1076            prop = "DEFAULT"
1077        elif manual:
1078            prop = "MANUAL"
1079        elif never:
1080            prop = "NEVER"
1081        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1082
1083    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1084        no = expression.args.get("no")
1085        no = " NO" if no else ""
1086        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1087        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1088
1089        for_ = ""
1090        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1091            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1092        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1093            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1095            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1096        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1097
1098    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1099        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1100        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1101        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1102        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1103        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1104        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1105
1106    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1107        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1108        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1109        statistics_sql = ""
1110        if statistics is not None:
1111            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1112        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1113
1114    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1115        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1116
1117        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1118            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1119        else:
1120            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1121
1122        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1123        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1124        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1125
1126        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1127
1128        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1129        partition_sql = (
1130            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1131        )
1132        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1133        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1134        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1135        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1136        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1137        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1138        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1139
1140    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1141        return self.prepend_ctes(
1142            expression,
1143            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1144        )
1145
1146    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1147        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1148
1149    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1150        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1151
1152    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1153        return expression.name.upper()
1154
1155    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1156        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1157        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1158        if constraint:
1159            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1160        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1161        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1162        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1165        if expressions:
1166            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1167        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1168
1169    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1170        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1171
1172    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1173        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1174        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1175        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1176        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1177        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1178        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1179        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1180        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1181        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1182        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1183        null = expression.args.get("null")
1184        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1185        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1186
1187    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1188        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1189
1190    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1191        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1192        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1193        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1194        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1195
1196    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1197        table = ".".join(
1198            part
1199            for part in [
1200                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1201                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1202                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1203            ]
1204            if part
1205        )
1206
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1208        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1209        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1210        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1211        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1212        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1213        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1214        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1215        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1216        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1217
1218        sql = f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1219        return f"({sql})" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else sql
1220
1221    def tablesample_sql(
1222        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1223    ) -> str:
1224        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1225            table = expression.this.copy()
1226            table.set("alias", None)
1227            this = self.sql(table)
1228            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1229        else:
1230            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231            alias = ""
1232        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1233        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1234        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1235        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1236        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1237        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1238        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1239        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1240        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1241        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1242        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1243        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1244        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1245            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1246        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1247        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1248        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1249        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1250
1251    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1253
1254        if expression.this:
1255            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1257            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1258            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1259            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1260            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1261
1262        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1263        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1264        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1265        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1266        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1267        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1268
1269    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1270        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1271
1272    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1276        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1277        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1278        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1279        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1280        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1281
1282    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1283        args = self.expressions(expression)
1284        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1285        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1286        values = (
1287            f"({values})"
1288            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1289            else values
1290        )
1291        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1292
1293    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1294        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1295
1296    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1297        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1298        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1299        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1300
1301    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1302        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1303
1304    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1305        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1306
1307        if expression.args.get("all"):
1308            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1309
1310        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1311        grouping_sets = (
1312            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1313        )
1314
1315        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1316        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1317            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1318        else:
1319            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1320            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1321
1322        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1323        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1324            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1325        else:
1326            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1327            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1328
1329        groupings = csv(
1330            grouping_sets,
1331            cube_sql,
1332            rollup_sql,
1333            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1334            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1335        )
1336
1337        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1338            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1339
1340        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1341
1342    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1343        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1345
1346    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1347        op_sql = " ".join(
1348            op
1349            for op in (
1350                expression.method,
1351                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1352                expression.side,
1353                expression.kind,
1354                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1355            )
1356            if op
1357        )
1358        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1359        using = expression.args.get("using")
1360
1361        if not on_sql and using:
1362            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1363
1364        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365
1366        if on_sql:
1367            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1368            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1369            if using:
1370                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1371            else:
1372                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1373        elif not op_sql:
1374            return f", {this_sql}"
1375
1376        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1377        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1378
1379    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1380        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1381        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1382        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386
1387        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1388            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1389
1390        if expression.args.get("view"):
1391            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1392            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1393            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1394            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1395            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1396            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1397
1398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1399        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1400        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1401
1402    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1404        args = ", ".join(
1405            sql
1406            for sql in (
1407                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1408                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1409            )
1410            if sql
1411        )
1412        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1413
1414    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1417
1418    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1420        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1423        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1424        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1425        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1426        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1427
1428    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1429        expressions = (
1430            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1431        )
1432        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1433        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1434
1435    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1436        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1437
1438    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1439        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1440            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1441            return ""
1442
1443        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1445        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1446        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1447
1448        if wait is not None:
1449            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1450                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1451            else:
1452                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1453
1454        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1455
1456    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1457        text = expression.this or ""
1458        if expression.is_string:
1459            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1460        return text
1461
1462    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1463        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1464        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1465            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1466        elif self.pretty:
1467            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1468        return text
1469
1470    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1471        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1472        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1473        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1474        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1475        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1476        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1477        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1478        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1479        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1480        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1481        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1482
1483    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1484        return "NULL"
1485
1486    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1487        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1488
1489    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1492        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1493
1494    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1495        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1496
1497    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1498        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1499
1500    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1501        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1502
1503    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1504        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1505        asc = not desc
1506
1507        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1508        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1509        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1510        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1511        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1512
1513        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1514        nulls_sort_change = ""
1515        if nulls_first and (
1516            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1517        ):
1518            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1519        elif (
1520            nulls_last
1521            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1522            and not nulls_are_last
1523        ):
1524            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1525
1526        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1527            self.unsupported(
1528                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1529            )
1530            nulls_sort_change = ""
1531
1532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1533
1534    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1535        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1536        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1537        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1538        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1539        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1540        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1541        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1542        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1543        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1544        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1545        definition_sqls = [
1546            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1547            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1548        ]
1549        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1550        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1551        body = "".join(
1552            (
1553                partition,
1554                order,
1555                measures,
1556                rows,
1557                after,
1558                pattern,
1559                define,
1560            )
1561        )
1562        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1563        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1564        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1565
1566    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1567        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1568
1569        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1570        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1571
1572        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1573            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1574        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1575            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1576
1577        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1578
1579        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1580            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1581            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1582            else []
1583        )
1584
1585        return csv(
1586            *sqls,
1587            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1588            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1589            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1590            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1591            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1592            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1593            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1594            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1595            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1596            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1597            sep="",
1598        )
1599
1600    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1601        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1602    ) -> t.List[str]:
1603        return [
1604            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1605            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1606        ]
1607
1608    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1609        return [
1610            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1611            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1612            if expression.args.get("windows")
1613            else "",
1614            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1615            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1616            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1617        ]
1618
1619    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1620        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1621        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1622        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1623
1624    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1625        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1626        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1627        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1628        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1629        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1630        top = (
1631            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1632            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1633            else ""
1634        )
1635
1636        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1637
1638        if kind:
1639            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1640                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1641            else:
1642                if kind == "STRUCT":
1643                    expressions = self.expressions(
1644                        sqls=[
1645                            self.sql(
1646                                exp.Struct(
1647                                    expressions=[
1648                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1649                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1650                                        )
1651                                        for e in expression.expressions
1652                                    ]
1653                                )
1654                            )
1655                        ]
1656                    )
1657                kind = ""
1658
1659        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1660        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1661            expression,
1662            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1663            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1664            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1665        )
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1667
1668    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1670        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1671        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1672        return f"{this}{sql}"
1673
1674    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1675        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1676
1677    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1678        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1679        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1680        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1681        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1682        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1683
1684    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1687        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1688
1689    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        kind = expression.text("kind")
1692        if kind:
1693            kind = f"{kind}."
1694        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1695
1696    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1697        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1698
1699    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1700        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1701        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1702
1703        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1704        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1705
1706        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1707        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1708
1709    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1710        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1711        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1712
1713    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1714        return self.prepend_ctes(
1715            expression,
1716            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1717        )
1718
1719    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1720        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1721        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1722        return f"UNION{kind}"
1723
1724    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1725        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1727        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1728            columns = alias.columns
1729            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1730        else:
1731            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1732        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1733        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1734        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1735        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1736        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1737
1738    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1739        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1740        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1741
1742    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1745        order = expression.args.get("order")
1746        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1747        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1748        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1749        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1750
1751        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1752
1753        first = expression.args.get("first")
1754        if first is None:
1755            first = ""
1756        else:
1757            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1758
1759        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1760            return f"{this} {alias}"
1761
1762        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1763        return f"{this} ({args})"
1764
1765    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1766        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1767        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1768
1769    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1770        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1771        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1772        end = (
1773            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1774            or "CURRENT ROW"
1775        )
1776        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1777
1778    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1780        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1781        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1782
1783    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1786        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1787        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1788
1789    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1790        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1791        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1792
1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1794
1795    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1796        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1797
1798    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1799        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1800
1801    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1804            this = self.wrap(this)
1805        return f"ANY {this}"
1806
1807    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1808        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1809
1810    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1813
1814        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1815            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1816            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1817
1818        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1819
1820        if default:
1821            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1822
1823        statements.append("END")
1824
1825        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1826            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1827
1828        return " ".join(statements)
1829
1830    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1834
1835    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1836        order = expression.args.get("order")
1837        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1838        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1839
1840    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1842        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1843        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1844
1845    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1846        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1847
1848        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1849            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1850        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1851            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1852        else:
1853            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1854
1855    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1856        expressions = expression.expressions
1857        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1858            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1859        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1860
1861    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1863        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1864
1865    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1867        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1868        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1869        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1870        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1871        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1872        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1873        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1874
1875    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1876        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1877        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1878        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1879        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1880
1881    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1882        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1883
1884    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1885        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1886        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1887        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1888
1889    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1891
1892    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1893        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1894        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1895        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1896        if unique_keys is not None:
1897            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1898        else:
1899            unique_keys = ""
1900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1902        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1903        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1904        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1905        return self.func(
1906            "JSON_OBJECT",
1907            *expression.expressions,
1908            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1909        )
1910
1911    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1914        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1915        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1916        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1917        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1918
1919    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1922        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1923        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1924        with_ = (
1925            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1926            if expressions
1927            else ""
1928        )
1929        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1930
1931    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1932        query = expression.args.get("query")
1933        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1934        field = expression.args.get("field")
1935        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1936
1937        if query:
1938            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1939        elif unnest:
1940            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1941        elif field:
1942            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1943        else:
1944            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1945
1946        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1947
1948    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1949        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1950
1951    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1952        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1953        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1954            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1955        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1956
1957        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1958            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1959            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1960
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        if this:
1963            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1964            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1965
1966        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1967
1968    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1969        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1970
1971    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1976        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1977        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1978
1979    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1980        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1981
1982    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1983        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1984            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1985        else:
1986            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1987            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1988
1989        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1990
1991    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1992        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1993        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1995        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1996
1997    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1998        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1999
2000    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2003        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2004
2005    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2006        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2007
2008    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2010        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2011        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2012
2013    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2014        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2015
2016    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2017        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2018
2019    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2020        if not self.pretty:
2021            return self.binary(expression, op)
2022
2023        sqls = tuple(
2024            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2025            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2026        )
2027
2028        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2029        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2030
2031    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2032        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2033
2034    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2035        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2036
2037    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2038        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2039
2040    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2041        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2042
2043    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2044        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2045
2046    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2047        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2048
2049    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2050        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2051        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2052        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2053
2054    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2055        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2056        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2057
2058    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2059        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2060
2061    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2063
2064    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2067        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2068        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2069        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2070
2071    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2074        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2075        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2076        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2077        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2078        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2079        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2080        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2081
2082    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2083        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2084        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2085        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2086        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2087
2088        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2089            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2090
2091        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2092
2093    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2094        return "BEGIN"
2095
2096    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2097        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2098        if chain is not None:
2099            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2100
2101        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2102
2103    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2104        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2105        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2106        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2107
2108    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110
2111        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2112        if dtype:
2113            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2114            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2115            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2116            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2117            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2118
2119        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2120        if default:
2121            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2122
2123        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2124            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2125
2126        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2127
2128    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2129        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2130            # Remove db from tables
2131            expression = expression.transform(
2132                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2133            )
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2136
2137    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2138        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2139
2140        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2142        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2143            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2145            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2146        else:
2147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2148
2149        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2150        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2151
2152    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2153        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2154        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2155        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2156
2157    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2159        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2160        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2161
2162        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2163        if enforced is not None:
2164            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2165
2166        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2167
2168    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2169        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2170        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2171
2172        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2173        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2174        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2175
2176    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2177        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2178
2179    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2181
2182    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2183        return self.sql(
2184            exp.Cast(
2185                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2186                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2187            )
2188        )
2189
2190    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2192
2193    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2194        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2195            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2196        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2197
2198    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2200
2201    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2203
2204    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2206
2207    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2209
2210    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2212
2213    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2215
2216    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2218
2219    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2221
2222    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2224
2225    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2226        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2227
2228    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2230
2231    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2232        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2233            return self.sql(
2234                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2235            )
2236        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2237
2238    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2239        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2240
2241    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2242        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2243
2244    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2246
2247    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2248        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2249
2250    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2251        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2252
2253    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2254        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2255
2256    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2258
2259    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2260        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2261
2262    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2263        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2264
2265    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2267
2268    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2269        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2270
2271    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2272        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2273
2274    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2276
2277    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2278        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2279
2280    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2281        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2282        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2285        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2286
2287    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2288        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2289        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2290
2291    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2292        args = []
2293
2294        for key in expression.arg_types:
2295            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2296
2297            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2298                for value in arg_value:
2299                    args.append(value)
2300            elif arg_value is not None:
2301                args.append(arg_value)
2302
2303        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2304
2305    def func(
2306        self,
2307        name: str,
2308        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2309        prefix: str = "(",
2310        suffix: str = ")",
2311    ) -> str:
2312        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2313
2314    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2315        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2316        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2317            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2318        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2319
2320    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2321        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2322
2323    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2324        return format_time(
2325            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2326        )
2327
2328    def expressions(
2329        self,
2330        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2331        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2332        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2333        flat: bool = False,
2334        indent: bool = True,
2335        skip_first: bool = False,
2336        sep: str = ", ",
2337        prefix: str = "",
2338    ) -> str:
2339        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2340
2341        if not expressions:
2342            return ""
2343
2344        if flat:
2345            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2346
2347        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2348
2349        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2350        pad = " " * self.pad
2351        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2352
2353        result_sqls = []
2354        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2355            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2356            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2357
2358            if self.pretty:
2359                if self.leading_comma:
2360                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2361                else:
2362                    result_sqls.append(
2363                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2364                    )
2365            else:
2366                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2367
2368        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2369        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2370
2371    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2372        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2373        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2374        if flat:
2375            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2376        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2377
2378    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2379        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2380        if not property_name:
2381            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2382        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2383
2384    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        op = self.seg(op)
2387        return self.query_modifiers(
2388            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2389        )
2390
2391    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2392        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2393
2394    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2395        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2396
2397    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2399        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2400        expressions = (
2401            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2402        )
2403        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2404
2405    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2408        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2409
2410    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2411        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2412
2413    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2414        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2415        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2416        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2417        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2418
2419        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2420        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2421            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2422            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2423                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2424        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2425            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2426                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2427            else:
2428                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2429        else:
2430            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2431        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2432
2433    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2436        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2437        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2438
2439    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2440        if expression.args.get("format"):
2441            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2442
2443        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2444
2445    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2448        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2449        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2450        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2451
2452    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2454        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2455        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2456        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2457
2458    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2459        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2460
2461    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2462        return ""
2463
2464    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2465        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2466        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2467        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2468        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2469        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2470
2471    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2473        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2474
2475        if having:
2476            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2477
2478        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2479
2480
2481def cached_generator(
2482    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2483) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2484    """Returns a cached generator."""
2485    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2486    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2487    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)